Jump to content

Cyclops (play)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by 216.186.142.254 (talk) at 02:07, 2 October 2020 (→Story). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Cyclops
Late Classical terracotta figure depicting Polyphemos reclining while drinking a bowl of wine.
Written byEuripides
ChorusSatyrs
CharactersSilenus
Odysseus
The Cyclops
MuteCompanions of Odysseus
Place premieredAthens
Original languageAncient Greek
GenreSatyr play

Cyclops (Ancient Greek: Κύκλωψ, Kyklōps) is an ancient Greek satyr play by Euripides, based closely on an episode from the Odyssey.[1] It would have been the fourth part of a tetralogy by Euripides, presented in the dramatic festival of 5th Century BC Athens. The date of its composition is unknown, but "[m]etrical considerations and other arguments of varying weight" suggest it was written late in Euripides' career.[2][3] It is the only complete, extant satyr play.

A satyr play was a story usually taken from epic poetry or mythology, and then adorned with a chorus of satyrs.[4] Cyclops combines the myth of Dionysus's capture by pirates with the episode in Homer's Odyssey of "Odysseus' encounter with the one-eyed giant Polyphemus".[5][6][7] "To this Euripides adds Silenos and the satyrs for a comic result".[8] "Euripides was not the first to write a satyr play on this theme: a Cyclops is attributed to the early fifth-century poet Aristias".[9] But it is apparently the only thing Euripides wrote "based on a specific Homeric episode".[10] It adheres to many aspects of the Homeric version: the skin of Maron's wine; the blinding of the human-eating, one-eyed giant; and the pun on the word "Nobody" all occur in Euripides' play.[11] But the play is set in Sicily (the location of the cyclopes is not specified in the Odyssey),[12] "possibly following an innovation of Epicharmus",[13] portrayed as a "barbaric dystopia, hostile to Greek religion and law".[14] When the play was written, Sicily had actually "had a long history of sophisticated Hellenism", and "been home to Greek and non-Greek alike".[15] But "[t]he character of Euripides' Land of the Cyclopes is specifically that it is completely non-Bacchic. Every character in the play makes this point [...] The absence of wine from Cyclops-country [...] is important because it is a concrete indication of the land's non-Dionysiac nature".[16]

"Cyclops is a neglected play",[17] and it has been suggested "that the illustrious name of its author has led us to look for merit where none exist".[18] "There is little originality of characterization."[19] Its "simplicity of theme and characterization"[20] has been posited as "perhaps one of the reasons the play has found few admirers".[21] "Polyphemos himself is pure Homer",[22] says one critic, while another says that "Homer’s Polyphemus is ogre-ish and nasty [...] clearly of a different world from the Greeks",[23] elaborating that the "intellectual position [Euripides'] Polyphemus stakes out for himself is obviously meant to call to mind analogues in the fifth century".[24] Indeed, "both the monster and the hero manifest in their appropriative rhetorical maneuvers an aggressive sophistry that reduces men to meat, and fine talk to deceptive barter", says one critic.[25] "[T]he play refracts and interrogates Homeric and tragic scenes that portray Odysseus as a calculating, mercenary type". [26] But Euripides "has taken from Homer his plot, his characterization, even his language. In fact the only changes he has made are those dictated by the necessities of staging".[27] "Some of [Euripides'] alterations in the story can be traced to the exigencies of putting it on the stage",[28] says one. "Euripides' Cyclops", says another, "captures a key interaction between [traditional] character types in the connections it forges between gluttonous ingestion and sophistic trickery".[29] Another calls it "a rival version of a Homeric episode with new contemporary implications."[30] "Euripides' Cyclops plays with metapoetic images throughout its performance, and this game is framed by metapoetic challenges posed to the audience in both opening and closing scenes".[31] Yet another suggests that "if we today are in a position to know that Lycurgus the Spartan lawgiver [...] was poked in the eye with a stick by a certain Alcander (Plut. Lyc. 11), we can be sure that the story was well known to Athenians towards the end of the fifth century."[32] Moreover, "[t]he Cyclops' loss of vision is the main burden of the plot of Euripides' play", [33] says one. "Odysseus/Alcibiades drives a stake into the eye of a figure who [...] is represented as a gross caricature of a Spartan."[34] But another critic explains how "[t]he Cyclops is cast as a distorted caricature of a Dionysiac figure".[35] The Cyclops' eye, however, "will also have recalled the world of Achaemenid Persia. The King's Eye was a functionary who was very much a part of the Greeks' perception of their powerful eastern neighbour".[36] Accordingly, "Euripides' Cyclops is a dramatic expression of a shift of political alliances ostensibly achieved by Alcibiades", says one critic.[37] Another suggests that "[t]he audience is invited to recognize the foolish nature of the recent Athenian enterprise against Sicily".[38] Another judges it "arresting that this much simplified story, with its clear lines of right and wrong and its transparent application to the immoralist philosophy of certain Sophists of the poet’s own day, seemed interesting enough to Euripides to present at the City Dionysia".[39] This latter critic suggests that "in its general outlook [Cyclops] has points of contact with one of Euripides’ undoubted masterpieces, Bacchae, which is – at least ostensibly – about the punishment of a disbeliever and the vindication of the piety and wisdom practiced by 'the multitude of the ordinary'".[40] But, for another, even The Bacchae, "traditionally [...] seen as a tragedy [...] has recently been interpreted as involving Euripides' own experimentation with mixing the genres of tragedy and satyr-play".[41] Cyclops is "fortunately extant",[42] and "[c]ertainly we could well afford to consign the Cyclops to oblivion".[43]

Story

Actor as Papposilenus, around 100 AD, after 4th-century BC original

The play is set in Sicily at gfggMount Aetna. Silenus explains that he and his sons, the chorus, are slaves to a Cyclops, Polyphemus. The chorus enter with singing and sheep. Silenus tells them to stop singing, and send the sheep into the cave, because he can see a Greek ship by the coast, and men coming to the cave. Odysseus enters with his men, asking where he can find water, and if anyone will sell them food. Silenus questions Odysseus, and Odysseus questions Silenus. On learning that he will probably be eaten if found, Odysseus is keen to leave. Silenus is keen to swap the Cyclops' food for Odysseus' wine. Silenus exits into the cave, while the chorus talk to Odysseus. Silenus reenters with much food. The Cyclops enters, and wants to know what is going on. Silenus explains that Odysseus and his men have beaten him, are taking the Cyclops' things, and have threatened the Cyclops with violence. The Cyclops decides to eat them. Odysseus says that Silenus is lying, but the Cyclops believes Silenus. Odysseus tries to persuade the Cyclops not to eat them. The Cyclops is not persuaded, and all but the chorus exit into the cave. The chorus sing until Odysseus enters from the cave, and tells the chorus that the Cyclops has eaten some of his men; that he has been giving the Cyclops wine; and that he intends to blind the Cyclops, and save everyone, including the satyrs. The chorus are keen to help. The Cyclops exits from the cave singing, drunk, and wanting more wine from Odysseus. The Cyclops wants to go and share with his brothers, but is persuaded to stay. Silenus and the Cyclops drink wine until the Cyclops decides to take the now very appealing Silenus to bed, and the pair exit into the cave. The chorus affirm that they are ready to help Odysseus, but urge him to go in and help Silenus. Odysseus calls on Hephaestus and Hypnos, and exits into the cave. The chorus sing. Odysseus enters from the cave, and tells them to be quiet, and come help burn out the eye. The chorus excuse themselves, and Odysseus suggests that they can at least offer encouragement, which they agree to provide, and do provide, while Odysseus exits into the cave. The Cyclops enters from the cave with noise and blindness. The chorus mock him, and direct him away from Odysseus and the others while they escape from the cave. Odysseus addresses the Cyclops before exiting toward his ship. The Cyclops says he is going to smash the ship, and exits into the cave, which is "pierced through" (ἀμφιτρῆτος). The chorus say they will go with Odysseus, and be slaves to Dionysus.

Odysseus offering wine to Polyphemus

Analysis

Alcibiades

[...] ἀλλὰ καὶ σέ τοι
δίκας ὑφέξειν ἀντὶ τῶνδ᾿ ἐθέσπισεν,
πολὺν θαλάσσῃ χρόνον ἐναιωρούμενον
But it also prophesied that you would pay the penalty for this by drifting about on the sea for a long time.

Euripides, (Kovacs ed. and trans.), Cyclops, 698-700.

There is no consensus on the purpose of the satyric drama, but it "can be shown [...] to have been no less political than tragedy".[44] Cyclops

seems to examine the Alcibiades question [...] evoking his ambition, treachery, greed, lusts, religious pollution and speech impediment. The seaward side of Mt Etna was, after all, an appropriate place [...] for it was there, at Catana, that he was invited in 415 BCE to return to Athens to face charges of impiety (Plut. Alc. 21.7). Alcibiades, moreover, more than anyone else had pushed for the Sicilian expedition (Plut. Alc. 17.2).[45]

"The ξύμπασα γνώμη (bottom line) of Euripides’ play is a subtle appeal for Alcibiades, his excesses behind him, to be allowed home from exile. The message is similar to that of Sophocles’ play of the preceding year,[a] but the tone is decidedly different".[46]

Euripides' Cyclopes

Main article: Cyclopes

[...] σχοινίνοις τ᾿ ἐν τεύχεσιν
πλήρωμα τυρῶν ἐστιν ἐξημελγμένον;
τί φατε; τί λέγετε; τάχα τις ὑμῶν τῷ ξύλῳ
δάκρυα μεθήσει. βλέπετ᾿ ἄνω καὶ μὴ κάτω.
The milk for cheeses – has it been put in rush buckets? What say you? This club will soon make someone cry. Look up, not down!

Euripides, (Kovacs ed. and trans.), Cyclops, 208-11.

Euripides' Cyclops tells the story of Odysseus' encounter with the Cyclops Polyphemus, famously told in Homer's Odyssey. It takes place on the island of Sicily near the volcano Mount Etna where, according to the play, "Poseidon’s one-eyed sons, the man-slaying Cyclopes, dwell in their remote caves."[47] Euripides describes the land where Polyphemus' brothers live, as having no "walls and city battlements", and a place where "no men dwell".[48] The Cyclopes have no rulers and no government, "they are solitaries: no one is anyone’s subject."[49] They grow no crops, living only "on milk and cheese and the flesh of sheep."[50] They have no wine, "hence the land they dwell in knows no dancing".[51] They show no respect for the important Greek value of Xenia ("guest friendship). When Odysseus asks "are they god-fearing and hospitable toward strangers" (φιλόξενοι δὲ χὤσιοι περὶ ξένους), he is told: "most delicious, they maintain, is the flesh of strangers ... everyone who has come here has been slaughtered."[52]

Euripides’ Polyphemus

is fastidious about his food, an owner of slaves, a careful manager of his household, and a sophistical arguer who can articulately justify his immoral behavior. Where Homer’s Polyphemus neither knows nor cares about the Trojan War, in Euripides he has heard all about it and has an opinion about it.[53]

He is

portrayed as one of the aristocratic nurslings of the Sophists, contemptuous of religion and determined to throw off the yoke of conventional morality, convinced that his own view of the world is correct and that no superhuman power stands in his way.[54]

Euripides' Satyrs

Main article: Satyr

οὔκουν, ἐπειδὴ τὴν νεᾶνιν εἵλετε,
ἅπαντες αὐτὴν διεκροτήσατ᾿ ἐν μέρει,
ἐπεί γε πολλοῖς ἥδεται γαμουμένη,
τὴν προδότιν;
Once you had caught the girl, didn’t you all then take turns banging her, since she takes pleasure in having more than one mate? The traitor!

Euripides, (Kovacs ed. and trans.), Cyclops, 179-82.

Detail of a krater, dating to c. 560–550 BC, showing a satyr masturbating. Athenian satyr plays were characterized as "a genre of 'hard-ons.'"[55]

According to Carl A. Shaw, the chorus of satyrs in a satyr play were "always trying to get a laugh with their animalistic, playfully rowdy, and, above all, sexual behavior." Satyrs were widely seen as mischief-makers who routinely played tricks on people and interfered with their personal property.[56] They had insatiable sexual appetites, and often sought to seduce or ravish both nymphs and mortal women alike[57][58][59][60] (though not always successfully).[57] A single elderly satyr named Silenus was believed to have been the tutor of Dionysus on Mount Nysa.[57][61][58] After Dionysus grew to maturity, Silenus became one of his most devout followers, remaining perpetually drunk.[62] In spite of their bawdy behavior, however, satyrs were still revered as semi-divine beings and companions of the god Dionysus.[63] They were thought to possess their own kind of wisdom that was useful to humans if they could be convinced to share it.[56][63]

In Euripides' Cyclops, Polyphemus has captured a tribe of satyrs with Silenus, their "Father", and forced them to work for him as his slaves. The satyrs play an important role in driving the plot, without any of them actually being the lead role, which, in the satyr play generally, was always reserved for a god or tragic hero (in this case Odysseus).[64][57] After Polyphemus captures Odysseus, Silenus attempts to play Odysseus and Polyphemus off each other for his own benefit, primarily by tricking them into giving him wine.[57] As in the Homeric version, Odysseus manages to blind Polyphemus and escape.[57] [55] The satyrs are weak and useless (πονηροί) when it comes to confronting the Cyclops, preferring to "let a mercenary run [the] risk"[65] ("ἐν τῷ Καρὶ κινδυνεύσομεν").[66] However, the satyrs offer "an incantation of Orpheus"[67] ("ἐπῳδὴν Ὀρφέως"):[68] "they sing their magical 'exhortations'", and "[w]hether Odysseus and his crew [manipulate] the burning branch, or it [flies] into the Cyclops' eye on its own (or a little of both), this chorus shares in the victory as surely as any of their tragic counterparts".[69]

The identity of satyrs [...] is not so readily fixed that it can be reduced to one level of comic inversion of societal norms, even though this is certainly one of their most conspicuous features in Cyclops. Elements of playfulness, irony, and even pathos underscore their identity, too, and these are evident on various levels [...] this medium itself was understood as a paradox in the form of a "tragedy at play" [...] Euripides’ Cyclops accommodates this paradox, not least in exploring the vicissitudes of philia, one of many folktale motifs in the play.[70]

As depicted in the satyr-plays, the satyrs themselves and their leaders, Silenus and Dionysus, were creatures that were funny and joyful, pleasing and delightful, feminine and masculine, but also cowardly and disgusting, pitiful and lamentable, terrifying and horrific. [...] The satyr-plays give the audience a hero who is neither likeable nor detestable, and who can, if anything, be viewed as a kind of friend-enemy of both the Athenian audience and their polis.[71]

Euripides's Cyclops

portrays the cooperation between the spoudaios (high/noble/excellent/good/serious) Odysseus, and the phaulos (low/common/mean/unaffected) satyrs as they triumph over the villain, Polyphemus. In other words, they help the audience think about the difficult cooperation that was always necessary between elite orators and the mass democratic audience in the assemblies of ancient Athens, if they were to successfully defeat their internal and foreign enemies.[72]

φέρε νυν κώμοις παιδεύσωμεν
τὸν ἀπαίδευτον.
Come, let us with our revelling songs impart some culture to this lout.

Euripides, (Kovacs ed. and trans.), Cyclops, 492-93.

Satyr plays generally "rely heavily on the complex associations between the notions of playfulness (paidia), education (paideia), child (pais), slave (pais), playful (paidikos), and childishness (paidia)".[73]

A.E. Haigh writes extensively on costumes for the satyric drama. The chorus members all wore masks in accordance with Bacchic tradition.[74] The earliest reliable testimony is supplied by the Pandora Vase dating from the middle of the 5th century BC. On that vase, the satyrs are portrayed as half men and half goats, wearing goat’s horns on their heads, thus referring to the goat deities of the Doric type.[75]

Gluttony

ΧΟΡΟΣ

ὃν ἂν θέλῃς σύ· μὴ ᾿μὲ καταπίῃς μόνον.

ΚΥΚΛΩΨ

ἥκιστ᾿· ἐπεί μ᾿ ἂν ἐν μέσῃ τῇ γαστέρι
πηδῶντες ἀπολέσαιτ᾿ ἂν ὑπὸ τῶν σχημάτων.

Chorus Leader

Whatever you like. Just don’t swallow me down.

Cyclops

I wouldn’t think of it: you would be the death of me with your dance steps, leaping around inside my belly.

Euripides, (Kovacs ed. and trans.), Cyclops, 219-21.

Euripides' Cyclops involves "gluttonous ingestion",[76] and "[t]he imagery of grotesque ingestion surfaces almost immediately in the play":[77] "[t]he very setting appears voracious".[78] Odysseus' arrival is "structured by references to consumption".[79] "Polyphemus's pleasures center around his mouth: he likes to talk, he likes to eat, [...] to talk about eating, or to try to eat those who talk to him".[80] "He and the satyrs make repeated references to his belly and its satisfaction".[81]

Odysseus and Polyphemus both demonstrate a grotesquely humorous attention to the belly, the consumer ethic of which is reflected in their appropriative argumentative strategies. [...] Throughout their interaction their language revolves around food and exchange.[82]

Odysseus takes up Polyphemus's "greedy rhetoric (which is merely a more aggressive form of the hungry man's tactics) in order to trick him",[83] leaving him "effectively persuaded by his own gluttonous attitudes".[84]

Euripides' Cyclops has been described as "a figure of proto-Rabelaisian excess",[85] and linked to ideas contained in the work of Mikhail Bakhtin.[86] Bakhtin himself was familiar with Euripides' work, noting, in his monograph Rabelais and his World, that Rabelais "was familiar with the giants of antiquity, especially with Euripides' cyclopes":[87] "[Rabelais] quotes [Cyclops] twice in his novel".[88][b]

[T]he character of Polyphemus is often seen as a stand in for the sophistic teaching that man and not the gods are the source of morality, and he has been associated with the figures of both Callicles and Thrasymachus. Even Thrasymachus' speech [in Plato's Republic] that the true ruler is like the shepherd who fattens his sheep only to devour them resonates with Euripides' Cyclops because while Silenus is forced inside the cave to serve the "domestic" needs of Polyphemus, all of the other satyrs of the play are forced to tend to the tyrannical Polyphemus' flock outside the cave. [89]

"[F]eeding and feasting were often used in both satyr-plays and comedies as a euphemism for sexual activity – then amounts to the threat of rape, that is actually carried out by Polyphemus on Silenus in the Cyclops".[90]

Impiety

ἁγὼ οὔτινι θύω πλὴν ἐμοί, θεοῖσι δ᾿ οὔ,
καὶ τῇ μεγίστῃ, γαστρὶ τῇδε, δαιμόνων.
These I sacrifice to no one but myself – never to the gods – and to my belly, the greatest of divinities.

Euripides, (Kovacs ed. and trans.), Cyclops, 334-335.

"To judge from what remains of Greek tragedy [...] Euripides specialized in the consequences of impiety".[91]

Even in his satyr play the theme of impiety shades the comic aspects [...] In Cyclops, Polyphemus announces that "I do not fear the thunderbolts of Zeus and I do not know in what respect Zeus is a stronger god than I" (320-1). There is no external commentary by a god or character on his hybris, but when Odysseus, after praying to Hephaestus and Sleep (599-607), burns out the Cyclops' eye it seems to be just punishment for this disrespect. Such acts of divine retribution are more than plot devices, but on the most elementary didactic level they explain the practice of Greek religion, which is to honor and placate the gods because they are powerful. [...] [I]mpiety was a very real concern in fifth century Athens. In addition to the prosecutions of the physical philosophers and other individuals, we can adduce reactions to the mutilation of the Herms and desecration of the Eleusinian Mysteries. These events shocked the Athenians and fueled their anxiety about the expedition to Sicily.[92]

However, "[w]hat is very evident from Euripides’ plays is the influence of the Sophists [...] not only in his rhetorical style but also in his skeptical, down‐to‐earth approach to the stories he dramatized".[93] For Euripides, "the gods are not a 'given,' never to be questioned as they were for Aeschylus and Sophocles. He is prepared to bring them into his plays as it suits him best in each one".[94]

"Characters might refuse to worship certain gods, blaspheme them, or even at times question the morality of the gods, but there is little evidence of what we would call atheism, a complete lack of belief in any god, in Greek thought".[95]

Justice

ἡσθέντα δ᾿ αὐτὸν ὡς ἐπῃσθόμην ἐγώ,
ἄλλην ἔδωκα κύλικα, γιγνώσκων ὅτι
τρώσει νιν οἷνος καὶ δίκην δώσει τάχα.
Seeing it had given him pleasure, I gave him another cup, knowing that wine would be his undoing and he would soon pay the penalty.

Euripides, (Kovacs ed. and trans.), Cyclops, 420-22.

"[T]he issue of justice and its punishments and rewards"[96] is "the central theme of Euripides' Cyclops".[97] "[T]his theme is interlinked with the theme of inter-generational tension and conflict, where Silenus' misuse of words or perjury compromises his role as the head of his genos (race/stock/kin)".[98]

Metapoetry

τὰ καινά γ᾿ ἐκ τῶν ἠθάδων, ὦ δέσποτα,
ἡδίον᾿ ἐστίν. οὐ γὰρ οὖν νεωστί γε
ἄλλοι πρὸς οἴκους σοὺς ἀφίκοντο ξένοι.
After ordinary fare, good master, something new is all the pleasanter. It has been some time since strangers arrived at your house.

Euripides, (Kovacs ed. and trans.), Cyclops, 250-52.

Theatre of Dionysus

Euripides "seems to have written only one work based on a specific Homeric episode": [99] the "fortunately extant Cyclops",[100]

a rival version of a Homeric episode with new contemporary implications. Metapoetically loaded terms, such as deuteros ‘second’, dissos ‘double’, kainos ‘new’, are used as triggers for audience recognition of novelties or continuations in relation to earlier sources, in addition to the term mythos.[101]

"The number of features and details common to both versions is remarkable. [...] Nevertheless, there are important differences [...] all of which have to do with the drama's metapoetic agenda and with its distinctive genre".[102] Cyclops "promotes a collective consciousness in its audience".[103] Odysseus "explicitly cast[s] both Cyclops and events in Odyssey 9 as unbelievable fictions", and "the characters in Cyclops seem to act with knowledge of prior poetic events".[104] "Silenus ‘knows his Odyssey rather well’".[105] "In the context of the collective audience [...] it seems significant that an intertextual relationship with earlier poetry is so clearly announced in Cyclops. Moreover, the same can be said for the Dionysiac aspects".[106]

[T]he chorus of satyrs lament their present situation with the words ‘There is no Bromius (i.e. Dionysus) here, here there are no choruses’ (Cyc. 63: οὐ τάδε Βρόμιος, οὐ τάδε χοροί). [...] It is obviously a lamentable state of affairs for the satyrs that there are no other choruses in the land of the Cyclopes, but the audience will experience these statements with a pleasing ironical and metatheatrical understanding.[107]

"Polyphemus also emphasizes that ‘there is no Dionysus’ (Cyc. 204: οὐχὶ Διόνυσος), but soon thereafter describes his own activities in strangely Dionysiac terms. [...] Ultimately the Cyclops completes his Dionysiac experience [...] The Cyclops is cast as a distorted caricature of a Dionysiac figure, and the point is underlined by Odysseus".[108] "Euripides' Cyclops plays with metapoetic images throughout its performance, and this game is framed by metapoetic challenges posed to the audience in both opening and closing scenes".[109] In his opening lines, "Silenus effectively draws the audience's attention to the fictional potential of poetic narrative".[110]

No one who knows Odyssey 9 could fail to get the obvious comical allusions, and yet the emphatic references to Sicily suggest the possibility of an additional type of collective audience response. The audience is invited to recognize the foolish nature of the recent Athenian enterprise against Sicily, a campaign based on material greed (Thuc. 6.8), against an enemy who would prove difficult to control, even if conquered (Thuc. 6.11), and launched at a time when Athens was finally feeling some relief from losses of manpower and financial resources (Thuc. 6.12).[111]

Orphism

Main article: Orphism (religion)

ἀλλ᾿ οἶδ᾿ ἐπῳδὴν Ὀρφέως ἀγαθὴν πάνυ,
ὥστ᾿ αὐτόματον τὸν δαλὸν ἐς τὸ κρανίον
στείχονθ᾿ ὑφάπτειν τὸν μονῶπα παῖδα γῆς.
But I know an incantation of Orpheus so wonderful that the firebrand all on its own will march up to his skull and set the one-eyed son of earth on fire.

Euripides, (Kovacs ed. and trans.), Cyclops, 646-48.

The central focus of Orphism is the suffering and death of the god Dionysus at the hands of the Titans, which forms the basis of Orphism's central myth. According to this myth, the infant Dionysus is killed, torn apart, and consumed by the Titans. In retribution, Zeus strikes the Titans with a thunderbolt, turning them to ash. From these ashes, humanity is born.

In Cyclops, "the chorus of satyrs [...] claim to know an incantation of Orpheus that will bring down a form of fiery destruction upon their enemy",[112] "appropriately enough, since the satyrs are themselves the special devotees of Dionysus and they are at that very moment living on the island of Sicily, a well known center of Orphic cult".[113]"[W]hen the satyrs boast [...] that they 'know an incantation of Orpheus, an entirely excellent one' they are mimicking the language of popular hexametrical incantations known to Euripides and presumably to his audience as well".[114] There are "at least two significant details in the satyrs’ description of the charm, where Euripides clearly abandons the famous Homeric model [...] and introduces changes that point to Orphic mythology".[115]

[W]hen they abandon the canonical Homeric genealogy for Polyphemus by identifying him as a "son of Earth", and when they describe the δαλός [dalos] crashing into and setting fire to his skull (not his eye), they do so because they are mimicking a traditional Orphic incantation, which calls down fiery destruction upon the head of a threatening or murderous enemy in imitation of Zeus’ punishment of the Titans, those "sons of Earth" who were the primordial enemies of the Orphic Dionysus.[116]

Xenia

Main article: Xenia (Greek)

ξένια δὲ λήψῃ τοιάδ᾿, ὡς ἄμεμπτος ὦ,
πῦρ καὶ πατρῷον ἅλα λέβητά θ᾿, ὃς ζέσας
σὴν σάρκα δυσφάρωτον ἀμφέξει καλῶς.
Guest-presents you shall have – you shall not blame me there – guest-presents of this kind: fire to warm you, salt inherited from my father, and a bronze pot, which when it has reached a boil will clothe your ill-clad body nicely.

Euripides, (Kovacs ed. and trans.), Cyclops, 342-44.

Xenia is the ancient Greek sacred rule of hospitality (or hospitium), the generosity and courtesy shown to those who are far from home and/or associates of the person bestowing guest-friendship. The rituals of hospitality created and expressed a reciprocal relationship between guest and host expressed in both material benefits (e.g. gifts, protection, shelter) as well as non-material ones (e.g. favors, certain normative rights).

Xenia consists of two basic rules:

  1. The respect from hosts to guests. Hosts must be hospitable to guests and provide them with a bath, food, drink, gifts, and safe escort to their next destination. It is considered rude to ask guests questions, or even to ask who they are, before they have finished the meal provided to them.
  2. The respect from guests to hosts. Guests must be courteous to their hosts and not be a threat or burden. Guests are expected to provide stories and news from the outside world. Most importantly, guests are expected to reciprocate if their hosts ever call upon them in their homes.[117]

Xenia was considered to be particularly important in ancient times when people thought that gods mingled among them. If one had poorly played host to a stranger, there was the risk of incurring the wrath of a god disguised as the stranger. It is thought that the Greek practice of theoxenia may have been the antecedent of the Roman rite of Lectisternium, or the draping of couches.

While these practices of guest-friendship are centered on the divine, they would become common among the Greeks in incorporating xenia into their customs and manners. Indeed, while originating from mythical traditions, xenia would become a standard practice throughout all of Greece as a historical custom in the affairs of humans interacting with humans as well as humans interacting with the gods.

In the Odyssey, Polyphemus showed lack of xenia, despite Odysseus' reminders, and refused to honor the travelers' requests, instead eating some of Odysseus' men.

Translations

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Vickers asserts 408 for Cyclops.
  2. ^ Cyclops 334-35: The Fourth Book, Chapter LVIII; Cyclops 168: The Fourth Book, Chapter LXV.

References

  1. ^ David Kovacs (ed. & tr.) (2001). Introduction, in "Cyclops", in Euripides I. Euripides. Cambridge, MA; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 53. ISBN 9780674995604.
  2. ^ Euripides (2001). "Cyclops", in Euripides I. David Kovacs (ed. & tr.). Cambridge, MA; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 53. ISBN 9780674995604.
  3. ^ Storey, Ian C., and Allan, Arlene. A Guide to Ancient Greek Drama. Somerset: John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2014. p. 171.
  4. ^ Euripides. Slavitt, David R. Bovie, Palmer, editors. "Introduction". Euripides, 2: Hippolytus, Suppliant Women, Helen, Electra, Cyclops. University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998. ISBN 9780812216295. page 299 - 301.
  5. ^ David Kovacs (ed. & tr.) (2001). Introduction, in "Cyclops", in Euripides I. Euripides. Cambridge, MA; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 53. ISBN 9780674995604.
  6. ^ Dougherty, Carol. "The Double Vision of Euripides' Cyclops: An Ethnographic Odyssey on the Satyr Stage". Comparative Drama. Vol. 33, No. 3 (Fall 1999), pp. 313-338
  7. ^ Homer, Odyssey 9.331-333.
  8. ^ Storey, Ian C., and Allan, Arlene. A Guide to Ancient Greek Drama. Somerset: John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2014. p. 170.
  9. ^ David Kovacs (ed. & tr.) (2001). Introduction, in "Cyclops", in Euripides I. Euripides. Cambridge, MA; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 53. ISBN 9780674995604.
  10. ^ Torrance, Isabelle (2013). Metapoetry in Euripides. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 246. ISBN 9780199657834.
  11. ^ Dougherty, Carol. "The Double Vision of Euripides' Cyclops: An Ethnographic Odyssey on the Satyr Stage". Comparative Drama. Vol. 33, No. 3 (Fall 1999), pp. 313-338
  12. ^ O'Sullivan, Patrick. "Cyclops". McClure, Laura. A Companion to Euripides. John Wiley & Sons, 2017. ISBN 9781119257509. page 314.
  13. ^ O'Sullivan, Patrick. "Cyclops". McClure, Laura. A Companion to Euripides. John Wiley & Sons, 2017. ISBN 9781119257509. page 314.
  14. ^ O'Sullivan, Patrick. "Cyclops". McClure, Laura. A Companion to Euripides. John Wiley & Sons, 2017. ISBN 9781119257509. page 315.
  15. ^ O'Sullivan, Patrick. "Cyclops". McClure, Laura. A Companion to Euripides. John Wiley & Sons, 2017. ISBN 9781119257509. page 315.
  16. ^ Olson, S. Douglas. "Dionysus and the Pirates in Euripides' 'Cyclops'." Hermes 116, no. 4 (1988): 502-04. Accessed September 7, 2020. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4476660.
  17. ^ Arnott, Peter D. "The Overworked Playwright A Study in Euripides' Cyclops." Greece and Rome 8, no. 2 (1961): 164-69.
  18. ^ Arnott, Peter D. "The Overworked Playwright A Study in Euripides' Cyclops." Greece and Rome 8, no. 2 (1961): 164-69.
  19. ^ Arnott, Peter D. "The Overworked Playwright A Study in Euripides' Cyclops." Greece and Rome 8, no. 2 (1961): 164-69.
  20. ^ David Kovacs (ed. & tr.) (2001). Introduction, in "Cyclops", in Euripides I. Euripides. Cambridge, MA; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 57. ISBN 9780674995604.
  21. ^ David Kovacs (ed. & tr.) (2001). Introduction, in "Cyclops", in Euripides I. Euripides. Cambridge, MA; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 57. ISBN 9780674995604.
  22. ^ Arnott, Peter D. "The Overworked Playwright A Study in Euripides' Cyclops." Greece and Rome 8, no. 2 (1961): 164-69.
  23. ^ David Kovacs (ed. & tr.) (2001). Introduction, in "Cyclops", in Euripides I. Euripides. Cambridge, MA; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 55. ISBN 9780674995604.
  24. ^ David Kovacs (ed. & tr.) (2001). Introduction, in "Cyclops", in Euripides I. Euripides. Cambridge, MA; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 56. ISBN 9780674995604.
  25. ^ Worman, Nancy. "Odysseus, ingestive rhetoric, and Euripides' Cyclops." Helios, vol. 29, no. 2, 2002, p. 101+. Gale Academic OneFile, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A95966820/AONE?u=tou&sid=AONE&xid=5ad4a560. Accessed 8 Sept. 2020.
  26. ^ Worman, Nancy. "Odysseus, ingestive rhetoric, and Euripides' Cyclops." Helios, vol. 29, no. 2, 2002, p. 101+. Gale Academic OneFile, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A95966820/AONE?u=tou&sid=AONE&xid=5ad4a560. Accessed 8 Sept. 2020.
  27. ^ Arnott, Peter D. "The Overworked Playwright A Study in Euripides' Cyclops." Greece and Rome 8, no. 2 (1961): 164-69.
  28. ^ David Kovacs (ed. & tr.) (2001). Introduction, in "Cyclops", in Euripides I. Euripides. Cambridge, MA; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 54. ISBN 9780674995604.
  29. ^ Worman, Nancy. "Odysseus, ingestive rhetoric, and Euripides' Cyclops." Helios, vol. 29, no. 2, 2002, p. 101+. Gale Academic OneFile, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A95966820/AONE?u=tou&sid=AONE&xid=5ad4a560. Accessed 8 Sept. 2020.
  30. ^ Torrance, Isabelle (2013). Metapoetry in Euripides. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 183. ISBN 9780199657834.
  31. ^ Torrance, Isabelle (2013). Metapoetry in Euripides. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 258. ISBN 9780199657834.
  32. ^ Vickers, Michael. Sophocles and Alcibiades : Athenian Politics in Ancient Greek Literature. Stocksfield [U.K.]: Acumen, 2008. pp.84-85
  33. ^ Vickers, Michael. Sophocles and Alcibiades : Athenian Politics in Ancient Greek Literature. Stocksfield [U.K.]: Acumen, 2008. p.85
  34. ^ Vickers, Michael. Sophocles and Alcibiades : Athenian Politics in Ancient Greek Literature. Stocksfield [U.K.]: Acumen, 2008. p.85
  35. ^ Torrance, Isabelle (2013). Metapoetry in Euripides. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 251. ISBN 9780199657834.
  36. ^ Vickers, Michael. Sophocles and Alcibiades : Athenian Politics in Ancient Greek Literature. Stocksfield [U.K.]: Acumen, 2008. p.85
  37. ^ Vickers, Michael. Sophocles and Alcibiades : Athenian Politics in Ancient Greek Literature. Stocksfield [U.K.]: Acumen, 2008. p.84
  38. ^ Torrance, Isabelle (2013). Metapoetry in Euripides. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 263. ISBN 9780199657834.
  39. ^ David Kovacs (ed. & tr.) (2001). Introduction, in "Cyclops", in Euripides I. Euripides. Cambridge, MA; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 54. ISBN 9780674995604.
  40. ^ David Kovacs (ed. & tr.) (2001). Introduction, in "Cyclops", in Euripides I. Euripides. Cambridge, MA; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 57. ISBN 9780674995604.
  41. ^ Tarnopolsky, Christina. "The Event of Genre: Reading Plato's Republic through the Lens of Satyr-Play." Theory & Event 17, no. 1 (2014): N_A.
  42. ^ Torrance, Isabelle (2013). Metapoetry in Euripides. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 246. ISBN 9780199657834.
  43. ^ Arnott, Peter D. "The Overworked Playwright A Study in Euripides' Cyclops." Greece and Rome 8, no. 2 (1961): 164-69.
  44. ^ Vickers, Michael (2014). Sophocles and Alcibiades: Athenian Politics in Ancient Greek Literature. New York, US: Routledge. p. 82. ISBN 9781844651238.
  45. ^ Vickers, Michael (2014). Sophocles and Alcibiades: Athenian Politics in Ancient Greek Literature. New York, US: Routledge. p. 83. ISBN 9781844651238.
  46. ^ Vickers, Michael (2014). Sophocles and Alcibiades: Athenian Politics in Ancient Greek Literature. New York, US: Routledge. p. 94. ISBN 9781844651238.
  47. ^ Euripides, Cyclops 20–22.
  48. ^ Euripides, Cyclops 114–116.
  49. ^ Euripides, Cyclops 119–120.
  50. ^ Euripides, Cyclops 121–122.
  51. ^ Euripides, Cyclops 123–124.
  52. ^ Euripides, Cyclops 125–128.
  53. ^ David Kovacs (ed. & tr.) (2001). Introduction, in "Cyclops", in Euripides I. Euripides. Cambridge, MA; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 55. ISBN 9780674995604.
  54. ^ David Kovacs (ed. & tr.) (2001). Introduction, in "Cyclops", in Euripides I. Euripides. Cambridge, MA; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 56. ISBN 9780674995604.
  55. ^ a b Shaw 2014, p. 5.
  56. ^ a b West 2007, p. 293.
  57. ^ a b c d e f Riggs 2014, p. 233.
  58. ^ a b Kerényi 1951, p. 179.
  59. ^ Roman & Roman 2010, p. 432.
  60. ^ Room 1983, pp. 270–271.
  61. ^ Fracer 2014, p. 326.
  62. ^ Riggs 2014, pp. 233–234.
  63. ^ a b Shaw 2014, p. 18.
  64. ^ Slenders 2015, p. 159.
  65. ^ Euripides (2001). "Cyclops", in Euripides I. David Kovacs (ed. & tr.). Cambridge, MA; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 133. ISBN 9780674995604.
  66. ^ Euripides (2001). "Cyclops", in Euripides I. David Kovacs (ed. & tr.). Cambridge, MA; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 132. ISBN 9780674995604.
  67. ^ Euripides (2001). "Cyclops", in Euripides I. David Kovacs (ed. & tr.). Cambridge, MA; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 133. ISBN 9780674995604.
  68. ^ Euripides (2001). "Cyclops", in Euripides I. David Kovacs (ed. & tr.). Cambridge, MA; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 132. ISBN 9780674995604.
  69. ^ Griffith, Mark. Greek Satyr Play: Five Studies. California Classical Studies. (2015). ISBN 9781939926043. pages 33-34
  70. ^ O'Sullivan, P. (2016) ‘Cyclops’, in A Companion to Euripides. Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, pp. 313–333. doi: 10.1002/9781119257530.ch22.
  71. ^ Tarnopolsky, Christina. "The Event of Genre: Reading Plato's Republic through the Lens of Satyr-Play." Theory & Event 17, no. 1 (2014): N_A.
  72. ^ Tarnopolsky, Christina. "The Event of Genre: Reading Plato's Republic through the Lens of Satyr-Play." Theory & Event 17, no. 1 (2014): N_A.
  73. ^ Tarnopolsky, Christina. "The Event of Genre: Reading Plato's Republic through the Lens of Satyr-Play." Theory & Event 17, no. 1 (2014): N_A.
  74. ^ Haigh (1907, 290)
  75. ^ Haigh (1907, 293–294)
  76. ^ Worman, Nancy. "Odysseus, ingestive rhetoric, and Euripides' Cyclops." Helios, vol. 29, no. 2, 2002, p. 101+. Gale Academic OneFile, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A95966820/AONE?u=tou&sid=AONE&xid=5ad4a560. Accessed 4 Sept. 2020.
  77. ^ Worman, Nancy. "Odysseus, ingestive rhetoric, and Euripides' Cyclops." Helios, vol. 29, no. 2, 2002, p. 101+. Gale Academic OneFile, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A95966820/AONE?u=tou&sid=AONE&xid=5ad4a560. Accessed 4 Sept. 2020.
  78. ^ Worman, Nancy. "Odysseus, ingestive rhetoric, and Euripides' Cyclops." Helios, vol. 29, no. 2, 2002, p. 101+. Gale Academic OneFile, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A95966820/AONE?u=tou&sid=AONE&xid=5ad4a560. Accessed 4 Sept. 2020.
  79. ^ Worman, Nancy. "Odysseus, ingestive rhetoric, and Euripides' Cyclops." Helios, vol. 29, no. 2, 2002, p. 101+. Gale Academic OneFile, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A95966820/AONE?u=tou&sid=AONE&xid=5ad4a560. Accessed 4 Sept. 2020.
  80. ^ Worman, Nancy. "Odysseus, ingestive rhetoric, and Euripides' Cyclops." Helios, vol. 29, no. 2, 2002, p. 101+. Gale Academic OneFile, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A95966820/AONE?u=tou&sid=AONE&xid=5ad4a560. Accessed 4 Sept. 2020.
  81. ^ Worman, Nancy. "Odysseus, ingestive rhetoric, and Euripides' Cyclops." Helios, vol. 29, no. 2, 2002, p. 101+. Gale Academic OneFile, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A95966820/AONE?u=tou&sid=AONE&xid=5ad4a560. Accessed 4 Sept. 2020.
  82. ^ Worman, Nancy. "Odysseus, ingestive rhetoric, and Euripides' Cyclops." Helios, vol. 29, no. 2, 2002, p. 101+. Gale Academic OneFile, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A95966820/AONE?u=tou&sid=AONE&xid=5ad4a560. Accessed 4 Sept. 2020.
  83. ^ Worman, Nancy. "Odysseus, ingestive rhetoric, and Euripides' Cyclops." Helios, vol. 29, no. 2, 2002, p. 101+. Gale Academic OneFile, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A95966820/AONE?u=tou&sid=AONE&xid=5ad4a560. Accessed 4 Sept. 2020.
  84. ^ Worman, Nancy. "Odysseus, ingestive rhetoric, and Euripides' Cyclops." Helios, vol. 29, no. 2, 2002, p. 101+. Gale Academic OneFile, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A95966820/AONE?u=tou&sid=AONE&xid=5ad4a560. Accessed 4 Sept. 2020.
  85. ^ Worman, Nancy. "Odysseus, ingestive rhetoric, and Euripides' Cyclops." Helios, vol. 29, no. 2, 2002, p. 101+. Gale Academic OneFile, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A95966820/AONE?u=tou&sid=AONE&xid=5ad4a560. Accessed 5 Sept. 2020.
  86. ^ Worman, Nancy. "Odysseus, ingestive rhetoric, and Euripides' Cyclops." Helios, vol. 29, no. 2, 2002, p. 101+. Gale Academic OneFile, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A95966820/AONE?u=tou&sid=AONE&xid=5ad4a560. Accessed 5 Sept. 2020.
  87. ^ Bakhtin, Mikhail (1984). Rabelais and His World. Iswolsky, H. (trans.). Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. p. 343. ISBN 0253203414.
  88. ^ Bakhtin, Mikhail (1984). Rabelais and His World. Iswolsky, H. (trans.). Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. p. 98. ISBN 0253203414.
  89. ^ Tarnopolsky, Christina. "The Event of Genre: Reading Plato's Republic through the Lens of Satyr-Play." Theory & Event 17, no. 1 (2014): N_A.
  90. ^ Tarnopolsky, Christina. "The Event of Genre: Reading Plato's Republic through the Lens of Satyr-Play." Theory & Event 17, no. 1 (2014): N_A.
  91. ^ McClure, LK (ed.) 2017, A Companion to Euripides, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Somerset. pp. 521-22
  92. ^ McClure, LK (ed.) 2017, A Companion to Euripides, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Somerset. pp. 521-22
  93. ^ Raeburn, D. (2016), Greek Tragedies As Plays for Performance, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Newark. p.138
  94. ^ Raeburn, D. (2016), Greek Tragedies As Plays for Performance, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Newark. p.138
  95. ^ McClure, LK (ed.) 2017, A Companion to Euripides, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Somerset. p. 522
  96. ^ Tarnopolsky, Christina. "The Event of Genre: Reading Plato's Republic through the Lens of Satyr-Play." Theory & Event 17, no. 1 (2014): N_A.
  97. ^ Tarnopolsky, Christina. "The Event of Genre: Reading Plato's Republic through the Lens of Satyr-Play." Theory & Event 17, no. 1 (2014): N_A.
  98. ^ Tarnopolsky, Christina. "The Event of Genre: Reading Plato's Republic through the Lens of Satyr-Play." Theory & Event 17, no. 1 (2014): N_A.
  99. ^ Torrance, Isabelle (2013). Metapoetry in Euripides. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 246. ISBN 9780199657834.
  100. ^ Torrance, Isabelle (2013). Metapoetry in Euripides. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 246. ISBN 9780199657834.
  101. ^ Torrance, Isabelle (2013). Metapoetry in Euripides. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 183. ISBN 9780199657834.
  102. ^ Torrance, Isabelle (2013). Metapoetry in Euripides. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 247. ISBN 9780199657834.
  103. ^ Torrance, Isabelle (2013). Metapoetry in Euripides. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 247. ISBN 9780199657834.
  104. ^ Torrance, Isabelle (2013). Metapoetry in Euripides. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 248. ISBN 9780199657834.
  105. ^ Torrance, Isabelle (2013). Metapoetry in Euripides. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 249. ISBN 9780199657834.
  106. ^ Torrance, Isabelle (2013). Metapoetry in Euripides. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 249. ISBN 9780199657834.
  107. ^ Torrance, Isabelle (2013). Metapoetry in Euripides. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 250. ISBN 9780199657834.
  108. ^ Torrance, Isabelle (2013). Metapoetry in Euripides. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 251. ISBN 9780199657834.
  109. ^ Torrance, Isabelle (2013). Metapoetry in Euripides. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 258. ISBN 9780199657834.
  110. ^ Torrance, Isabelle (2013). Metapoetry in Euripides. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 259. ISBN 9780199657834.
  111. ^ Torrance, Isabelle (2013). Metapoetry in Euripides. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 263. ISBN 9780199657834.
  112. ^ Faraone, Christopher A. "Mystery Cults and Incantations: Evidence for Orphic Charms in Euripides' Cyclops 646-48?" Rheinisches Museum Für Philologie 151, no. 2 (2008): p.127
  113. ^ Faraone, Christopher A. "Mystery Cults and Incantations: Evidence for Orphic Charms in Euripides' Cyclops 646-48?" Rheinisches Museum Für Philologie 151, no. 2 (2008): p.142
  114. ^ Faraone, Christopher A. "Mystery Cults and Incantations: Evidence for Orphic Charms in Euripides' Cyclops 646-48?" Rheinisches Museum Für Philologie 151, no. 2 (2008): p.138
  115. ^ Faraone, Christopher A. "Mystery Cults and Incantations: Evidence for Orphic Charms in Euripides' Cyclops 646-48?" Rheinisches Museum Für Philologie 151, no. 2 (2008): p.138
  116. ^ Faraone, Christopher A. "Mystery Cults and Incantations: Evidence for Orphic Charms in Euripides' Cyclops 646-48?" Rheinisches Museum Für Philologie 151, no. 2 (2008): p.140
  117. ^ Reece, Steve. 1993. The Stranger's Welcome: Oral Theory and the Aesthetics of the Homeric Hospitality Scene. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. [catalogues the various expectations of hosts and guests in early Greek society.]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cyclops_(play)&oldid=981397909"