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Constituted in March 1942,<ref>The reference ''Creating masculinity in Los Angeles's Little Manila'' (España-Maram, 2006) used the word "Formed". By Army terminology this is incorrect. Per [http://http//www.apd.army.mil/pdffiles/r220_5.pdf Army Regulation 2205-5] the correct term is "Constituted". The article has been edited to reflect that.</ref> the 1st Filipino Infantry Battalion was activated in April of the same year at Camp San Luis Obispo,<ref name="LEM2006">{{cite book |title=Creating masculinity in Los Angeles's Little Manila |last=España-Maram |first=Linda |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2006 |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |isbn=9780231115933 |page=152 |pages=252 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=AhGgymG6luMC&lpg=PA104-IA8&dq=%22Filipino%20Infantry%20Regiment%22&pg=PA152#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate=12 May 2011}}</ref> to liberate the Philippines.<ref name="CAINF" /> Colonel Offley was selected as the unit's [[commanding officer]], as he spoke [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] and had spent time on [[Mindoro]] in his youth.<ref name="Offley" /> During the following months, Filipino Americans continued to volunteer and the unit grew. [[Philippine Army]] personnel who were in the United States<ref name="CAINF" /> and Filipino military personnel who had escaped the fall of the Philippines<ref>{{cite book |title=Beyond Courage: One Regiment Against Japan, 1941–1945 |last=Cave |first=Dorothy |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2006 |publisher=Sunstone Press |location=[[Santa Fe, New Mexico]] |isbn=9780865345591 |page=91 |pages=484 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=uvP0jo8rURMC&lpg=PA91&dq=%22USS%20Mactan%22&pg=PA91#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate=12 May 2011}}</ref> and were recuperating in the United States were also instructed to report to the unit.<ref name="CAINF" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.militarymuseum.org/FtOrd.html |title=Fort Ord |author= |date= |work=California Military Museum |publisher=California State Military Department |accessdate=25 May 2011 |quote=Another unit of interest, the 1st Filipino Infantry Regiment, was activated in April and eventually included a few veterans of fighting on Bataan that had been wounded, evacuated, and returned to duty in the United States. }}</ref> In July 1942, the battalion was elevated to a regiment at the [[California Rodeo Salinas|California Rodeo Grounds]] in [[Salinas, California]].<ref name="CAINF" /><ref>
Constituted in March 1942,<ref>The reference ''Creating masculinity in Los Angeles's Little Manila'' (España-Maram, 2006) used the word "Formed". By Army terminology this is incorrect. Per [http://http//www.apd.army.mil/pdffiles/r220_5.pdf Army Regulation 2205-5] the correct term is "Constituted". The article has been edited to reflect that.</ref> the 1st Filipino Infantry Battalion was activated in April of the same year at Camp San Luis Obispo,<ref name="LEM2006">{{cite book |title=Creating masculinity in Los Angeles's Little Manila |last=España-Maram |first=Linda |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2006 |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |isbn=9780231115933 |page=152 |pages=252 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=AhGgymG6luMC&lpg=PA104-IA8&dq=%22Filipino%20Infantry%20Regiment%22&pg=PA152#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate=12 May 2011}}</ref> to liberate the Philippines.<ref name="CAINF" /> Colonel Offley was selected as the unit's [[commanding officer]], as he spoke [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] and had spent time on [[Mindoro]] in his youth.<ref name="Offley" /> During the following months, Filipino Americans continued to volunteer and the unit grew. [[Philippine Army]] personnel who were in the United States<ref name="CAINF" /> and Filipino military personnel who had escaped the fall of the Philippines<ref>{{cite book |title=Beyond Courage: One Regiment Against Japan, 1941–1945 |last=Cave |first=Dorothy |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2006 |publisher=Sunstone Press |location=[[Santa Fe, New Mexico]] |isbn=9780865345591 |page=91 |pages=484 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=uvP0jo8rURMC&lpg=PA91&dq=%22USS%20Mactan%22&pg=PA91#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate=12 May 2011}}</ref> and were recuperating in the United States were also instructed to report to the unit.<ref name="CAINF" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.militarymuseum.org/FtOrd.html |title=Fort Ord |author= |date= |work=California Military Museum |publisher=California State Military Department |accessdate=25 May 2011 |quote=Another unit of interest, the 1st Filipino Infantry Regiment, was activated in April and eventually included a few veterans of fighting on Bataan that had been wounded, evacuated, and returned to duty in the United States. }}</ref> In July 1942, the battalion was elevated to a regiment at the [[California Rodeo Salinas|California Rodeo Grounds]] in [[Salinas, California]].<ref name="CAINF" /><ref>
*{{cite web |url=http://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker=28040 |title=The First and Second Filipino Infantry Regiments U.S. Army |author=Andrew Ruppenstien |coauthors=Manny Santos |date=21 January 2010 |work= |publisher=Historic Marker Database |accessdate=12 May 2011}}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker=28040 |title=The First and Second Filipino Infantry Regiments U.S. Army |author=Andrew Ruppenstien |coauthors=Manny Santos |date=21 January 2010 |work= |publisher=Historic Marker Database |accessdate=12 May 2011}}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.cgsc.edu/CARL/nafziger/941UXIB.PDF |title=American Infantry Regiments 1941–1945 |author=S.L. Stanton |year=1992 |work= |publisher=[[United States Army Command and General Staff College]] |accessdate=10 May 2011}}</ref>
*{{cite web |url=http://www.cgsc.edu/CARL/nafziger/941UXIB.PDF |title=American Infantry Regiments 1941–1945 |author=S.L. Stanton |year=1992 |work= |publisher=[[United States Army Command and General Staff College]] |accessdate=10 May 2011}}</ref> The regiment consisted of three battalions, each consisting of a headquarters company and four infantry companies; the regiment had a headquarters company, a service company, an anti-tank company, a medical detachment, and a band.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.history.army.mil/html/topics/apam/filipino_regt/1stFilipinoInf.pdf |title=1st Filipino Infantry |author= |date=1943 |work=Camp Roberts Trainer |publisher=United States Army |accessdate=2 August 2011}}</ref>


[[File:1st Filipino Infantry Regiment - 2.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Naturalization ceremony at Camp Beale in 1942|alt=In the foreground a platform with officers facing away from the camera. In the background a formation of over a thousand soldiers, raising their right arms]]
[[File:1st Filipino Infantry Regiment - 2.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Naturalization ceremony at Camp Beale in 1942|alt=In the foreground a platform with officers facing away from the camera. In the background a formation of over a thousand soldiers, raising their right arms]]

Revision as of 18:34, 2 August 2011

1st Filipino Infantry Regiment
Per pall Argent, Gules and Azure, over the second and third an Igorot war shield and kris in saltire Or.
Regiment Coat of Arms
Active4 March 1942[1] – 10 April 1946[2]
Disbanded1952[2]
Allegiance United States
Branch United States Army
TypeInfantry
SizeRegiment
Motto(s)"Laging Una" (Always First)[3]
March"On to Bataan"[3][4]
EngagementsWorld War II
DecorationsPresidential Unit Citation streamer
Philippine Presidential Unit Citation[2]
Campaign streamersAsiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal streamer
  • New Guinea[2]
  • Leyte[2]
  • Southern Philippines[2]
Commanders
Regiment CommanderColonel Robert H. Offley[9][10]
Colonel William Robert Hamby[1]
Insignia
Shoulder Sleeve InsigniaOn a yellow disk 3 1/4 inches in diameter with a 1/8 inch edge, a conventionalized black volcano emitting smoke, the volcano charged with three yellow mullets in fess.
Distinctive Unit InsigniaA Gold color metal and enamel device 1 1/4 inches (3.18 cm) consisting of a shield blazoned: Per pall Argent, Gules and Azure, over the second and third an Igorot war shield and kris in saltire Or. Attached above the shield a wreath of the colors Argent and Gules three mullets Or. Attached below the shield a Gold scroll inscribed �LAGING UNA� in Blue letters.

The 1st Filipino Infantry Regiment was a segregated[11][12] United States Army infantry regiment made up of Filipino Americans from the continental United States and a few veterans of the Battle of the Philippines. It was formed and activated at Camp San Luis Obispo, California, under the auspices of the California National Guard.[13] Originally created as a battalion, it was declared a regiment on 13 July 1942. Deployed initially to New Guinea in 1944, the regiment became a source of manpower for special forces and units that would serve in occupied territories. In 1945, the regiment deployed to the Philippines, where it would first see combat as a unit. After major combat operations, the regiment remained in the Philippines until it returned to California and was deactivated in 1946 at Camp Stoneman.

Background

See also: History of Filipino Americans

In 1898, the Philippines was ceded to the United States and, after a conflict between Philippine independence forces and the United States, Filipinos were allowed to immigrate freely to the United States as U.S. nationals.[14] Most immigrants chose to settle in the Territory of Hawaii and the West coast.[15] In 1934, U.S. policy changed and their status as nationals was revoked.[16][17]

In 1941, the Imperial Japanese Navy attacked Pearl Harbor, while other Japanese forces attacked the Philippines.[18] Filipino Americans, like other Americans, attempted to volunteer for military service, but were not allowed to enlist since they were neither citizens nor resident aliens.[19][20] Following a change in legislation it was announced on 3 January 1942, the day after Manila fell,[21][22] that Filipinos would be permitted to volunteer, and could be drafted, for military service; in California, almost half of the male Filipino American population enlisted.[23] Some who volunteered to serve were refused due to their age; other older volunteers were refused due to the need for agricultural labor.[24] Filipinos were strongly encouraged to volunteer for the regiment, and only those who did so were assigned to it.[13][25]

History

Stateside

Constituted in March 1942,[26] the 1st Filipino Infantry Battalion was activated in April of the same year at Camp San Luis Obispo,[23] to liberate the Philippines.[1] Colonel Offley was selected as the unit's commanding officer, as he spoke Tagalog and had spent time on Mindoro in his youth.[10] During the following months, Filipino Americans continued to volunteer and the unit grew. Philippine Army personnel who were in the United States[1] and Filipino military personnel who had escaped the fall of the Philippines[27] and were recuperating in the United States were also instructed to report to the unit.[1][28] In July 1942, the battalion was elevated to a regiment at the California Rodeo Grounds in Salinas, California.[1][29] The regiment consisted of three battalions, each consisting of a headquarters company and four infantry companies; the regiment had a headquarters company, a service company, an anti-tank company, a medical detachment, and a band.[30]

In the foreground a platform with officers facing away from the camera. In the background a formation of over a thousand soldiers, raising their right arms
Naturalization ceremony at Camp Beale in 1942

The regiment continued to train and grow, leading to the activation of the 2nd Filipino Infantry Regiment at Fort Ord in November 1942.[1][8] The 2nd regiment was assigned to Camp Cooke and the 1st to Camp Beale.[1] Eventually, more than 7,000 soldiers would be assigned to the Filipino Infantry Regiments.[31][32] While at Camp Beale, there was a mass naturalization ceremony of 1,200 soldiers of the regiment.[33] As members of the armed forces they were able to become citizens;[34] in 1924 naturalization of Filipino Americans had been barred, as it was determined only aliens could be naturalized and Filipinos at the time were nationals.[35] In November 1943, the Regiment paraded through Los Angeles, with Carlos Bulosan, the influential Filipino author of America Is in the Heart, there to witness it.[36]

Members of the Regiment faced discrimination during this period. The anti-miscegenation laws in California meant that the soldiers were banned from marrying non-Filipino women, although those soldiers who wished to to marry in this way were transported to Gallup, New Mexico,[37] as New Mexico had repealed its anti-miscegenation law after the Civil War.[38] Soldiers of the regiment faced discrimination in Marysville while visiting from neighboring Camp Beale, as the local businesses refused to serve Filipinos.[4][39] This was later remedied by the Regiment's commander, who informed the Chamber of Commerce that they were failing to cooperate with the Army, at which point they changed their business practices.[4] Further instances of discrimination against soldiers of the regiment were also reported in Sacramento and San Francisco, where they were mistaken for Japanese Americans.[40]

Deployment

Five men in foreground, four in World War II uniform, one in the center in a suite and overcoat. Behind a color guard stands at attention, with a formation of Filipino American soldiers behind it.
Formation of the regiment during the visit of Commonwealth Vice President Osmeña

In April 1944, the regiment departed California aboard the USS General John Pope for Oro Bay, New Guinea.[41] Upon arriving, the regiment was assigned to the 31st Infantry Division, 8th Army to provide area security and continue training.[8] Some soldiers of the regiment were then assigned to the Alamo Scouts[42] and the 5217th Reconnaissance Battalion.[8][43] One example was Second Lieutenant Rafael Ileto, a future Vice Chief of Staff in the Philippines, who lead a team in the Alamo Scouts.[44] Replacements from Hawaii, who were not allowed to enlist until 1943 due to the need for labor as argued by the Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association,[13] arrived and were integrated into the regiment.[1][3]

In February 1945, the regiment was sent to Leyte and was assigned to the Americal Division,[45] 10th Corps.[46] The regiment would later be reassigned back to the 8th Army, in May 1945, along with the Americal Division.[46] Finally in the Philippines, the regiment conducted "mopping up"[47] operations on the island,[48] Samar,[3][49] and other islands in the Visayan islands group.[8] Soldiers of the regiment would also participate in the Luzon Campaign,[5] fighting on the Bataan Peninsula,[6] and the recapture of former Fort Mills;[7] the regiment was not awarded formal campaign participation for these individual actions.[2]

Post-combat

Color guard of four Filipino men wearing World War II United States Army Uniform; the national colors and regimental colors in the center.
Color guard of the regiment

By August 1945, operations came to a close, and soldiers of the Regiment that had been detached to the Alamo Scouts, 5217th Reconnaissance Battalion, and other units were reassigned back to the Regiment.[1][50] During the period between the close of operations and their return to the United States, and without the Imperial Japanese Army to fight, the men of the regiment clashed with soldiers of the Philippine Army over differences in pay, culture and local women.[3][8] Others married women under to the War Brides Act,[8][51] which allowed spouses and adopted children of United States military personnel to enter the US.[52] For these newly married couples, a "tent city"[1] was established by Colonel Hamby, who had succeeded Colonel Offley as the regiment commander.[1] Many younger soldiers connected to a culture to which they had previously only had a distant relationship.[3]

Soldiers of the Regiment who did either not qualify to return to the U.S., either due to having insufficient service points[8][53] or their being otherwise ineligible,[1] and those who chose to remain in the Philippines,[1] were transferred to 2nd Filipino Infantry Battalion (the remnants of the 2nd Filipino Infantry Regiment) in Quezon City.[1] Returning to the United States aboard the USS General Calan on 8 April 1946, the rest of the regiment was sent to Camp Stoneman, near Pittsburgh, California, where it was deactivated on 10 April 1946.[1][2]

Legacy

See also: Military history of Asian Americans

During the war the efforts of Filipino and American defenders during the Battle of Bataan were widely covered by the press,[11] as were the activities of the 100th and 442nd Infantry.[54] After the war, the efforts of the 442nd continued to be lauded,[55] with the 1951 film Go for Broke! portraying their endeavors.[56] By contrast, the activities of the Filipino Infantry Regiment and her sister units were largely unpublicized;[3] it was not until the documentaries Unsung Heroes and An UnTold Triumph that any significant visual media covered the history of the regiment.[57] In 1984 an association of veterans of the regiment erected a marker in Salinas in honor of their former unit.[58]

The War Brides Act of 1945, and subsequent Alien Fiancées and Fiancés Act of 1946,[25][59] continued to apply until the end of 1953,[1] and these allowed veterans of the regiment,[1] and other Filipino American veterans,[32] to return to the Philippines to bring back fiancées, wives, and children.[1] In the years following the war, some sixteen thousand Filipinas entered the United States as war brides.[60] These new Filipino American families formed a second generation of Filipino Americans,[25] significantly expanding the Filipino American community.[32]

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Alex S. Fabros. "California's Filipino Infantry". The California State Military Museum. California State Military Department. Retrieved 10 May 2011.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h "Statement of Service". Center of Military History. United States Army. 1 May 2011. Retrieved 24 May 2011.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g Revilla, Linda A. (1996). ""Pineapples," "Hawayanos," and "Loyal Americans": Local Boys in the First Filipino Infantry Regiment, US Army" (PDF). Social Process in Hawai`i. 37. University of Hawai`i at Manoa: 57–73. Retrieved 10 May 2011.
  4. ^ a b c Takaki, Ronald T. (1998). Strangers from a different shore: a history of Asian Americans (PDF). Little, Brown. p. 591. ISBN 9780316831307. Retrieved 18 May 2011. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  5. ^ a b c d e f Scott Ishikawa (30 November 2001). "New film depicts Filipino regiments' exploits". Honolulu Advertiser. Retrieved 10 May 2011. Soldiers of the 1st and 2nd Infantry Regiments also participated in bloody combat and mop-up operations in New Guinea, Leyte, Samar, Luzon and the southern Philippines.
  6. ^ a b McKibben, Carol Lynn (2009). Seaside. San Francisco, California: Arcadia Publishing. p. 39. ISBN 9780738569819. Retrieved 24 May 2011. The 1st and 2nd Filipino Infantry Regiments trained at Fort Ord, after which they distinguished themselves in the Battle of Leyte and on the Bataan Peninsula. {{cite book}}: More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  7. ^ a b Frank, Sarah (2005). Filipinos in America. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Lerner Publications. p. 40. ISBN 9780822548737. Retrieved 8 June 2011. Members of the first and second regiments also served in the parachute-naval assault to recapture the island of Corregidor in 1944 {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h "The Philippine Army World War II". Chapter 11 Wilmington, NC. Disabled American Veterans. Retrieved 16 May 2011.
  9. ^ "1st Filipino Infantry and 2nd Filipino Infantry in Bataan, Philippines". CriticalPast.com. 1943. Retrieved 8 June 2011. First Commander of the 1st Filipino Infantry, Colonel Robert H Offley.
  10. ^ a b Frank, Sarah (2005). Filipinos in America. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Lerner Publications. p. 37. ISBN 9780822548737. Retrieved 8 June 2011. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  11. ^ a b Espiritu, Yen Le (1995). Filipino American lives. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Temple University Press. p. 17. ISBN 9781566393171. Retrieved 12 May 2011. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  12. ^ McNaughton, James C. (2006). Nisei Linguists: Japanese Americans in the Military Intelligence Service during World War II (PDF). Washington, D.C.: Department of the Army. p. 87. ISBN 0-16-072357-2. Retrieved 26 May 2011. the War Department already had several long-serving segregated units for African Americans, Puerto Ricans, and Filipinos and established several more during 1942. the Office of War information saw propaganda value in having combat units of different nationalities. thus during 1942 the War Department organized the 1st Filipino infantry in California and battalion-size units of Norwegians, Austrians, and Greeks. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  13. ^ a b c Baldoz, Rick (2011). The Third Asiatic Invasion: Migration and Empire in Filipino America, 1898-1946. New York: NYU Press. p. 212. ISBN 9780814791097. Retrieved 7 June 2011. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  14. ^ Ueda, Reed (2006). A companion to American immigration. Malden, Massachusetts: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 15. ISBN 9780631228431. Retrieved 10 May 2011. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  15. ^ Powell, John (2005). Encyclopedia of North American immigration. New York, New York: Infobase Publishing. p. 97. ISBN 9780816046584. Retrieved 10 May 2011. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  16. ^ "Filipino Immigration" (PDF). Angel Island Immigration Station Foundation. Retrieved 10 May 2011.
  17. ^ Eftihia Danellis. "Fight for Democracy: An Educator's resource guide" (PDF). National center for the preservation of Democracy. Retrieved 18 May 2011. However, in 1934, they were reclassified as "aliens". {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  18. ^ "Philippine Islands". Center of Military History. United States Army. 3 October 2003. Retrieved 10 May 2011.
  19. ^ Robert Barkan, Elliot (1999). A nation of peoples: a sourcebook on America's multicultural heritage. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 210. ISBN 9780313299612. Retrieved 10 May 2011. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  20. ^ Frank, Sarah (2005). Filipinos in America. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Lerner Publications. p. 37. ISBN 9780822548737. Retrieved 10 May 2011. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  21. ^ "Key Events in the Presidency of Franklin Delano Roosevelt". Miller Center of Public Affaris. University of Virginia. Retrieved 10 May 2011.
  22. ^ Bradford, James C. (2003). Atlas of American military history. New York, New York: Oxford University Press US. p. 132. ISBN 9780195216615. Retrieved 19 July 2011. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  23. ^ a b España-Maram, Linda (2006). Creating masculinity in Los Angeles's Little Manila. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 152. ISBN 9780231115933. Retrieved 12 May 2011. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  24. ^ Perez, Frank Ramos; Perez, Leatrice Bantillo (1994). "The Long Struggle for Acceptance: Filipinos in San Joaquin County" (PDF). The San Joaquin Historian. 8 (4). The San Joaquin County Historical Society: 3–18. Retrieved 10 May 2011. In San Joaquin County many Filipinos who volunteered for military service were rejected because of their age and/or the need for them to continue to work in the fields harvesting the crops to feed the armed forces.
  25. ^ a b c Sisson, Richard (2007). The American Midwest: an interpretive encyclopedia. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. p. 1890. ISBN 9780253348869. Retrieved 10 June 2011. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  26. ^ The reference Creating masculinity in Los Angeles's Little Manila (España-Maram, 2006) used the word "Formed". By Army terminology this is incorrect. Per Army Regulation 2205-5 the correct term is "Constituted". The article has been edited to reflect that.
  27. ^ Cave, Dorothy (2006). Beyond Courage: One Regiment Against Japan, 1941–1945. Santa Fe, New Mexico: Sunstone Press. p. 91. ISBN 9780865345591. Retrieved 12 May 2011. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  28. ^ "Fort Ord". California Military Museum. California State Military Department. Retrieved 25 May 2011. Another unit of interest, the 1st Filipino Infantry Regiment, was activated in April and eventually included a few veterans of fighting on Bataan that had been wounded, evacuated, and returned to duty in the United States.
  29. ^
  30. ^ "1st Filipino Infantry" (PDF). Camp Roberts Trainer. United States Army. 1943. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
  31. ^ "An Untold Triumph: The Story of the 1st & 2nd Filipino Infantry Regiments, U.S. Army". Smithsonian Asian Pacific American Program. Smithsonian Institute. 30 January 2003. Retrieved 7 June 2011. An Untold Triumph captures the never-been-told story of how the U.S. Army's World War II 1st and 2nd Filipino Infantry Regiments, made up of more than 7,000 immigrants and sons of immigrants, played a vital role in General Douglas McArthur's covert plan to retake the Philippines.
  32. ^ a b c Chen, Edith Wen-Chu (2006). Teaching about Asian Pacific Americans: effective activities, strategies, and assignments for classrooms and communities. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 316. ISBN 9780742553385. Retrieved 11 June 2011. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  33. ^
  34. ^ "Selected Dates and Events of Asian Pacific American History". Commission on Asian Pacific American Affairs. State of Washington. Retrieved 16 May 2011. As members of the armed forces, Filipinos are allowed to become U.S. citizens. 1,200 Filipino soldiers stand proudly in "V" formation at Camp Beale as citizenship is conferred on them.
  35. ^
    • "Asian Americans". History World International. Retrieved 16 May 2011.
    • Posadas, Barbara Mercedes (1999). The Filipino Americans. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 23. ISBN 9780313297427. Retrieved 21 May 2011. Thus, although all children born in the United States to Filipino immigrants were U.S. citizens, before World War II, no matter how many years Philippine-born Filipinos had lived in the United States, they were ineligible for naturalization, and, therefore, could not vote, or be absolutely sure of their future status and security. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
    • Holmquist, June D. (2003). They Chose Minnesota: A Survey Of The States Ethnic Groups. St. Paul, Minnesota: Minnesota Historical Society Press. p. 547. ISBN 9780873512312. Retrieved 8 June 2011. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
    • M. Licudine v. D. Winter, JR 1086, p. 5 (U.S. District Court for D.C. 2008) ("“[f]rom the time the United States obtained dominion over the Philippines in 1899 until it granted independence to the islands in 1946, [the United States] Congress classified natives of the Philippines as Philippine citizens, as non-citizen United States nationals, and as aliens, but never as United States citizens.”").
  36. ^ Dr. Riz A. Oade. ""The Day of Infamy" SD's Unsung Heroes of World War II". Asian Journal. Retrieved 21 May 2011.
  37. ^ Alex S. Fabros, Jr. (1995). "My Funny Valentine: A Battle In The Filipino American Civil Rights Movement" (PDF). AAS 456. San Francisco State University. Retrieved 18 May 2011.
  38. ^ Pascoe, Peggy (2009). What comes naturally: miscegenation law and the making of race in America. New York, New York: Oxford University Press US. p. 40. ISBN 9780195094633. Retrieved 7 June 2011. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  39. ^ A Filipino Wife. "Letters from Readers: The Filipinos Do Not Understand" (PDF). AAS 456. San Francisco State University. Retrieved 18 May 2011.
  40. ^ Baldoz, Rick (2011). The Third Asiatic Invasion: Migration and Empire in Filipino America, 1898-1946. New York: NYU Press. p. 214. ISBN 9780814791097. Retrieved 7 June 2011. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  41. ^ "USS General John Pope (AP-110)" (PDF). Naval History Division. Office of the Chief of Naval Operations. Retrieved 18 May 2011.
  42. ^ Rottman, Gordon (2009). The Cabanatuan Prison Raid: The Philippines 1945. Mariusz Kozik, Howard Gerrard. Oxford, United Kingdom: Osprey Publishing. p. 15. ISBN 9781846033995. Retrieved 18 May 2011. Many were paratroopers or from the 1st Filipino Infantry Regiment, a US Army unit organized in the States. {{cite book}}: More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  43. ^ Rottman, Gordon L. (2005). Anderson, Dr. Duncan (ed.). Us Special Warfare Units in the Pacific Theater 1941–45: Scouts, Raiders, Rangers and Reconnaissance Units. Oxford, United Kingdom: Osprey Publishing. p. 96. ISBN 9781841767079. Retrieved 21 May 2011.
  44. ^
  45. ^
    • Captain Francis D. Cronin (1951). "Americal Division Order of Battle". Americal Division Veterans Association. Retrieved 24 May 2011.
    • Smith, Robert Ross (1963). Triumph in the Philippines. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. p. 437. Retrieved 24 May 2011. Reinforced by elements of the 1st Filipino Infantry, U.S. Army, the 182ds battalion overran organized resistance on northwest Samar by 1 March, and on the 4th of the month relinquished responsibility for patrolling in the region to the 1st Filipino Infantry and attached guerillas. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  46. ^ a b Cannon, M. Hamlin (1993). Leyte: The Return to the Philippines. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. p. 365. Retrieved 25 May 2011. In the X Corps phase, the island of Samar was cleared of Japanese troops. The Americal Division, advance elements of which arrived on 24 January, extensively patrolled both the islands of Leyte and Samar. During the Eighth Army Area Command phase, the constant searching out of isolated groups of enemy soldiers continued. In addition to the Americal Division, the 1st Filipino Infantry Regiment patrolled Leyte. On 8 May, the control of the Eighth Army over the area came to an end. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  47. ^ Eftihia Danellis. "Fight for Democracy: An Educator's resource guide" (PDF). National center for the preservation of Democracy. Retrieved 24 May 2011. Assigned to the 1st Filipino Infantry Regiment, Domingo came ashore on Leyte Island in the Philippines. His unit had been assigned the dangerous task of "mopping up" enemy soldiers who refused to surrender at all costs. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  48. ^
    • M. Hamilin Cannon (1993). "Chapter XXII: Leyte is Liberated". Leyte: The Return to the Philippines. ibiblio.org. Retrieved 24 May 2011. In addition to the Americal Division, the 1st Filipino Infantry Regiment patrolled Leyte.
    • Merriam, Ray (1999). World War II journal. Bennington, Vermont: Merriam Press. p. 27. ISBN 9781576381649. Retrieved 24 May 2011. Additional American units were called into the battle of Leyte: the 32nd Infantry Division, the 77th and 37th Infantry Divisions, the Americal Division, the 11th Airborne Division, the 112th Cavalry Regiment Combat Team, the 503rd Parachute Infantry Regiment, the 20th Armored Group, and the 1st Filipino Infantry. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  49. ^ Bell, Walter F. Bell (1999). Philippines in World War Two, 1941–1945. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 74. ISBN 9780313306143. Retrieved 24 May 2011. "On Samar, elements of Americal Division and 1st Filipino Infantry clear Mauro area. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  50. ^ "The Philippine Airborne". The Corregidor Historic Society. 29 March 2011. Retrieved 25 May 2011. Shortly after the mission, the 5217th, now the 1st Reconnaissance Battalion, was sent to Manila, where Walter and his cadre were returned to the 503d PRCT. Shortly thereafter, in August of 1945, the 1st Reconnaissance Battalion was disbanded and the men reassigned.
  51. ^ Mabalon, Dawn B. (2008). Filipinos in Stockton. San Francisco, California: Arcadia Publishing. p. 8. ISBN 9780738556246. Retrieved 25 May 2011. The 1945 War Brides Act enabled these veterans to bring back war brides from the Philippines, and the 1946 Luce-Cullar Act gave all Filipinos the right to naturalize. {{cite book}}: More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  52. ^ Caroline Chung, Simpson (1998). ""Out of an obscure place": Japanese War Brides and Cultural Pluralism in the 1950s". A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies. 10 (3). Brown University: 47–81. ISSN 1040-7391. Retrieved 7 June 2011.
  53. ^ "The Philippine Army World War II". Waiting Room USA. Sirzib Publishing Inc.,. 2 July 2010. Retrieved 10 June 2011.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  54. ^ Chan, Sucheng (1991). Asian Americans: an interpretive history (PDF). Twayne. p. 242. ISBN 9780805784374. Retrieved 21 May 2011. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  55. ^
  56. ^ Shibusawa, Naoko (2006). America's geisha ally: reimagining the Japanese enemy. Harvard University Press. p. 256. ISBN 9780674023482. Retrieved 21 May 2011. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  57. ^
  58. ^ Andrew Ruppenstien (21 January 2010). "The First and Second Filipino Infantry Regiments U.S. Army". Historic Marker Database. Retrieved 8 June 2011. Personnel won more than 50,000 decorations, awards, medals, ribbons, certificates, commendations and citations. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  59. ^ Smith, Carter, ed. (2004). Student Almanac of Asian American History: From the exclusion era to today, 1925-present. Westport Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 18. ISBN 9780313326042. Retrieved 11 June 2011. {{cite book}}: More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  60. ^ Baldoz, Rick (2011). The Third Asiatic Invasion: Migration and Empire in Filipino America, 1898-1946. New York: NYU Press. p. 228. ISBN 9780814791097. Retrieved 11 June 2011. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)

Further reading

External links

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