A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity

A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity

Title page of the first edition of the book, published in 1910.
Author	E. T. Whittaker
Country	Ireland, England, United States, India
Language	English
Subject	History of physics History of electromagnetic theory
Genre	Non-fiction Academic history Scientific writing
Publisher	Longmans, Green (1st ed.) Thomas Nelson (2nd ed.)
Publication date	1910 (1st ed.) 1951 (2nd ed.) 1 1953 (end ed.) 2
Pages	475 (1st ed.) 434 (2nd ed.) 1 319 (end ed.) 2
Text	A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity at Wikisource

A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity refers to one of three books written by British mathematician Sir Edmund Taylor Whittaker FRS FRSE on the history of electromagnetic theory, covering the development of classical electromagnetism, optics, and aether theories. The first edition was published in 1910 with the subtitle from the Age of Descartes to the Close of the Nineteenth Century. While the first book covers history up to the 20th century, a second edition consisting of two volumes extended the original to include the first quarter of the 20th century. The first volume, subtitled the classical theories, was published in 1951 and served as a revised edition to the first book. The second volume, published in 1953, extended this work covering the years 1900—1926. Notwithstanding a notorious controversy on Whitaker's views on the history of special relativity, covered in volume two of the second edition, the books are considered authoritative references on the history of electricity and magnetism and are considered classic books in the history of physics.

The original book was well received and was praised by its reviewers, but it ran out of print by the early 1920s. Whittaker believed that a new edition of it should include the developments in physics that took part at the turn of the twentieth century and declined to have it reprinted. He wrote the second edition of the book after his retirement and published The classical theories in 1951, which also received positive reviews. Whittaker's The modern theories (1900-1926) was published two years later in 1953. Though overall reviews of the second volume were generally positive, due to the role it played in the relativity priority dispute, it receives far fewer citations than the book's other volumes, except in connection with the dispute.

First edition: From the age of Descartes to the close of the nineteenth century

A 1933 portrait of E. T. Whittaker by Arthur Trevor Haddon.

The first edition of the book, written in 1910, gives a detailed account of the aether theories from René Descartes to Hendrik Lorentz and Albert Einstein, including the contributions of Hermann Minkowski, focusing heavily on theories of aether, Michael Faraday, and James Clerk Maxwell, devoting each one or more chapters. The book was well received and established Whittaker as a respected historian of science. While it was unavailable for many years before the publication of the second edition, the book is now in the public domain in the United States and has been reprinted by several publishers.

Background

Whittaker was an established mathematician by the publication of this book, and he brought unique qualifications to its authorship. As a teacher at Trinity College, beginning after he was elected as a fellow in 1896, Whittaker gave advanced lectures in spectroscopy, astrophysics, and electro-optics. His first book, Modern Analysis, was originally published in 1902 and remained a standard reference for applied mathematicians. His second major release, Analytical Dynamics, a mathematical physics textbook, was published in 1906 and was, according to Victor Lenzen in 1952, "still the best exposition of the subject on the highest possible level."

The book was written in Whittaker's spare time while he was thirty-seven years old, during which time he was serving as Royal Astronomer of Ireland. He was appointed to the post in 1906 and worked on the project until its release in 1910. The project is said to have taken an incredible amount of reading which was made possible by the free time that came with his post. During this same period, Whittaker also published the book The theory of optical instruments in 1907 as well as publish eight total papers, with six in astronomy, during the same period. In addition, he continued performing fundamental research in analytical dynamics at Trinity College in Dublin throughout this period.

This was the period immediately following the publication of Einstein's Annus Mirabilis papers and several years following the early work of Max Planck; it was a transitional period for physics, where special relativity and old quantum theory were gaining traction. The book serves to document the developments of electricity and magnetism prior to the quantum revolution and the development of quantum mechanics.

Overview

Chapter	Title
1	The theory of the aether in the seventeenth century
2	Electric and magnetic science, prior to the introduction of the potentials
3	Galvanism, from Galvani to Ohm
4	The luminiferous medium, from Bradley to Fresnel
5	The aether as an elastic solid
6	Faraday
7	The mathematical electricians of the middle of the nineteenth century
8	Maxwell
9	Models of the aether
10	The followers of Maxwell
11	Conduction in solutions and gases, from Faraday to J. J. Thomson
12	The theory of aether and electrons in the closing years of the nineteenth century

The book consists of twelve chapters that begin with a discussion on the theories of aether in the 17th century, focusing heavily on René Descartes, and end with a discussion of electronics and the theories of aether at the close of the 19th century, extensively covering contributions from Isaac Newton, Rene Descartes, Michael Faraday, James Clerk Maxwell, and J. J. Thomson. The book follows logical sequences of development, so the chapters are somewhat independent; the book is not fully chronological.

The first chapter covers the 17th century development of the theory of aether. Beginning with Descartes' conjectures, the chapter focuses on developments by Christiaan Huygens and Isaac Newton, while contributions from Petrus Peregrinus, William Gilbert, Pierre de Fermat, Robert Hooke, Galileo, and Ole Rømer are highlighted.

Chapter 2 covers the initial mathematical development of the magnetic field prior the introduction of the vector potential and scalar potential, covering action at a distance. Chapter 3 covers galvanism, beginning with Luigi Galvani and extending through Georg Ohm's theory of the circuit. Chapter 4 covers the early developments of the luminiferous aether theories stretch from James Bradley to Augustin-Jean Fresnel. Chapter 5 covers the developments that mostly take place over the first half of the nineteenth century, with some contributions by Joseph Valentin Boussinesq and Lord Kelvin. Here the idea of the luminiferous aether is modeled as an elastic solid. Chapter 6 focuses almost exclusively on the experiments of Michael Faraday. In Chapter 7 the mathematicians between Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell who adopted views of action at a distance over Faraday's lines of force. Includes a discussion of the contributions made by Franz Neumann, Wilhelm Eduard Weber, Bernhard Riemann, James Prescott Joule, Hermann von Helmholtz, Lord Kelvin, Gustav Kirchhoff, and Jean Peltier. Chapter 8 focuses on Maxwell's contributions to electromagnetism, Chapter 9 details further developments to the models of aether made after Maxwell's publications. Contributions by Lord Kelvin, Carl Anton Bjerknes, James MacCullagh, Bernhard Riemann, George Francis FitzGerald, and William Mitchinson Hicks. Chapter 10 covers physicists following in Maxwell's tracks in the mid nineteenth century, with contributions from Helmholtz, Fitzgerald, Weber, Hendrik Lorentz, H. A. Rowland, J. J. Thomson, Oliver Heaviside, John Henry Poynting, Heinrich Hertz, and John Kerr. Chapter 11 covers the conduction in solids and gases extending from Faraday's work, covered in chapter six, to that of J. J. Thomson while the final chapter gives an account of the theories of aether in the late 1800s, ending with Owen Willans Richardson's work at the turn of the century.

Reception

A 1911 review of the book by the physicist Carroll Mason Sparrow, notes that the book lives up to the legacy left by Whittaker's A Course in Modern Analysis and A Treatise on the Analytical Dynamics of Particles and Rigid Bodies. Though he notes several areas of the book that could be expanded, he notes "[that] some slight errors or inaccuracies should creep into a book of this nature is to be expected, but the one or two we have observed are of too trivial a character to deserve mention, and affect in no way the general excellence of the work. The book is attractively printed and remarkably free from misprints."

Another 1911 review of the book deemed it an "excellent volume" and predicted that "[t]he book will be welcomed by all physicists as a valuable contribution." A third 1911 review of the book, published in Nature, praised it for its careful depiction of the history and noted that "the treatment of the more important advances, without being [exhaustive], is sufficiently adequate to define them clearly in their historical setting".

A 1913 review of the book by Edwin Bidwell Wilson notes one theory that Whittaker overlooked, but goes on to say: "To go into further detail with regard to the contents of this History, which should and will be widely read, is needless. Suffice it to say that a careful study of all of the work twice, and of many portions of it several times, leaves but one resolution, namely, to continue the study indefinitely; for there is always something new to learn where so much material is so well presented."

Multiple reviews of the first volume of the second edition of the book, subtitled the classical theories, praised this edition in their reviews, including A. M. Tyndall who, in 1951, wrote that he remembered well how pleasure reading this edition brought him forty-one years prior, and how it expanded his knowledge of the history of physics. Carl Eckart wrote in 1952 that the book "has been the authoritative reference work for the historical aspects of the theories of optics, electromagnetism, and the [a]ether." In 1952, Victor Lenzen wrote that the book was "without rival in its field." In his 1952 review, William Hunter McCrea wrote that it "gave a superbly well-knit account of its subject".

Publication history

This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by adding missing items with reliable sources.

The book was originally published in 1910 by Longmans, Green, and co. in London, New York, Bombay, and Culcutta, and by Hodges, Figgis, and co. in Dublin. It was out of print by the 1920s and was notoriously difficult to obtain thereafter. It was part of the Dublin University Press and Landmarks of Science series of books. As it was registered with the U.S. copyright office prior to 1925, the book is now in the public domain in the United States and can be found on the Internet Archive free of charge and is free to be reprinted.

• Whittaker, E. T. (1910). A history of the theories of aether and electricity from the age of Descartes to the close of the nineteenth century. London, New York [etc.]: Longmans, Green and co.; [etc., etc.]
• Whittaker, E. T. (1910). A history of the theories of aether and electricity from the age of Descartes to the close of the nineteenth century. Dublin University Press series. London ; New York : Dublin: Longmans, Green ; Hodges, Figgis.
• Whittaker, E. T. (2012) [1910]. A history of the theories of aether and electricity from the age of Descartes to the close of the nineteenth century. [Whitefish, Mont.]: Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 978-0-548-96720-1. OCLC 784841387.
• Whittaker, E. T. (2012) [1910]. History of the theories of aether and electricity: from the age of Descartes to the close of the nineteenth century (hardcover). Benediction Classics. ISBN 978-1-78139-130-3. OCLC 935740243.

Extended and revised edition

In 1951 (Vol. 1) and 1953 (Vol. 2), Whittaker published an extended and revised edition of his book in two volumes. The first volume is a revision of the original 1910 book while the second volume, published two years later, contains an extension of the history into the twentieth century, covering the years 1900 through 1926. The books are considered authoritative texts on the developments of classical electromagnetism and continue to be cited in widely adopted textbooks on the subject. A third volume, covering the years 1925-1950 was promised in the second edition, but was never published, as Whittaker died in 1956. The two volumes provide an account of the historical development of the fundamental theories of physics, the books are said to "contain the distilled essence of their author's reading and study over a period of more than half a century."

Background

The original version of the book was universally praised and was considered an authoritative reference work in the history of physics, despite its difficulty to obtain. When the first edition of the book ran out of print, there was a long delay before the publication of the revised edition in 1951 and 1953. The delay was due, in Whittaker's own words, to his view that "any new issue should describe the origins of relativity and quantum theory, and their development since 1900", but the task required more time than his career as a mathematician allowed for and the project was put on hold until he retired from his professorship at the University of Edinburgh. Whittaker retired from his chair in 1946 and began working with "unabated vigour" on these works, releasing The Classical Theories just a few years later.

Volume I: The classical theories

The first volume, subtitled the classical theories, was originally published in 1951 by Thomas Nelson and Sons. The book is a revision of the original 1910 book, with an added chapter on classical radiation theory, some new material, but remains focused on pre-1900 physics. The book has a similar scope as the first edition, though occasionally modified toward the beginning with heavier edits towards the end. Along with the addition of some new material, the new volume is said to be about four-fifths a "reproduction" of the original 1910 edition, with revisions throughout written in light of developments over the first forty years of the 20th century. The work covers the development of optics, electricity, and magnetism, with some side-plots in the history of thermodynamics and gravitation, over a period of three centuries, through the close of the nineteenth century.

Overview

Volume I: The classical theories
Chapter	Title
1	The theory of the aether to the death of Newton
2	Electric and magnetic science, prior to the introduction of the potentials
3	Galvanism, from Galvani to Ohm
4	The luminiferous medium from Bradley to Fresnel
5	The aether as an elastic solid
6	Faraday
7	The mathematical electricians of the middle of the nineteenth century
8	Maxwell
9	Models of the aether
10	The followers of Maxwell
11	Conduction in solutions and gases, from Faraday to the discovery of the electron
12	Classical radiation-theory
13	Classical theory in the age of Lorentz

Chapter one of the first volume was renamed the theory of the aether to the death of Newton, and changes its approach and was largely rewritten, but still largely focuses on René Descartes, Isaac Newton, Pierre de Fermat, Robert Hooke, and Christiaan Huygens, among others. The chapter begins with a discussion of physics from the initial formulations of space by Rene Descartes, which evolved into the aether theories, through the death of Newton, witnessing the first attempts at a wave theory of light by Hooke and Huygens.

While there are many new paragraphs, references, and expanded footnotes throughout chapters two through eleven, much of the content remains the same as the first edition. Chapters two and three, as in the first edition, initiate the subject of electricity and magnetism, including Galvanism. Chapter two traces the history of electrostatics and magnetostatics from early developments through George Green's work on potential theory and his introduction of the vector potential and scalar potential. Chapter three, on Galvanism, discusses the history of electric current, centering on Galvani, Ohm, and Ampere. The fourth chapter, on the luminiferous medium, includes the discoveries of optical aberrations, polarization, and interference. This is the period of transition, from when Newton's corpuscular theory of light was widely held until the establishment of the wave theory after the experiments by Fresnel and Young. The fifth chapter records the development of theories modeling the aether as an elastic solid.

Chapters six through eight present the development of electromagnetism as a line from Faraday to Maxwell, including the development of theories of electricity and magnetism modeled on Newtonian mechanics. The chapter was largely expanded from its 1910 counterpart. Chapters seven and eight were extensively rewritten with new material throughout. Chapter nine, on models of the aether, discusses, among others, contributions of Maxwell, William Thomsan, James MacCullagh, Riemann, George Francis FitzGerald, and Hermann von Helmholtz, the preeminent physicists of the nineteenth century.

The final three chapters pave the way for twentieth-century developments, to be described in the second volume. Chapter eleven was renamed to conduction in solutions and gases, from Faraday to the discovery of the electron in the new edition. Chapter twelve, titled classical radiation-theory is completely new and focuses on the empirical development of spectral series as well as the historical development of black body radiation physics. The final chapter, chapter eight, was renamed to classical theory in the age of Lorentz and contains new material, while omitting several details, saving them for the second volume. The chapter largely focuses on electric and thermal conduction and the Lorentz theory of electrons. The table of contents has been praised as being "extremely useful" for breaking down the chapters into sections that highlight the key developments.

Reception

In a 1951 review, Arthur Mannering Tyndall wrote that he prefers the setup of the new edition to that of the original, saying "if there are any mistakes or omissions in it, the reviewer was too immersed in the atmosphere of the book to notice them". He recommends the book for teachers who are looking to develop students' interest in the historical background of optics and electricity, as he believes a lot of the content can be directly incorporated into lectures and that students can be advised to read parts of the book in their undergraduate studies.

In a second 1951 review, William Hunter McCrea states that Whittaker had succeeded, "possibly more than any other historian of science", in imparting "a comprehensive and authentic impression of that wherein the great pioneers were truly great", which allowing the reader to "see their work, with its lack of precedence, against the background of strangely assorted experimental data and of contemporary conflicting general physical concepts" and "to see how they yet contributed each his share to what we are bound to recognize as permanent progress". He praises the book saying "[n]o better factual account exists to show how hardly won this progress has been." In a 1952 review by the same author, published in The Mathematical Gazette, McCrea says "[o]ut of the riches of his mathematical and historical scholarship, Sir Edmund Whittaker has given us a very great book."

A 1952 review by Carl Eckart opens with: "The first edition of this book, written in 1910, has been the authoritative reference work for the historical aspects of the theories of optics, electromagnetism, and the [a]ether. This second edition will almost certainly continue to occupy the same position for many years to come." He notes that the book was ambition, but it was carried out with "unusual success". He praises Whittaker for his presentation style, saying the content is presented with clarity and elegance in the manner which had made Whittaker famous and that the book is a "true history of ideas" which has been and will continue as a "most influential book".

Another 1952 review by Victor Lenzen states that he "knows of no work on physical theories which is comparable to the present one in the analytical and critical discussion of the mathematical formulation of the theories." He closes the review by stating that the book is a testament to the "boundless intellectual curiosity" which drives humankind to understand the universe where we live.

Julius Milller, in a third 1951 review claims the work is beyond review, saying it suffices to note that "it is the work of a foremost scholar of this century and the last—a physicist, philosopher, mathematician." He notes that while it is primarily a history book, it is also "philosophy, physics, and mathematics of the first temper" and that it gives an "elegant penetrating examination of the classical theories". He notes that although it is "heavy reading", the work is "delightfully clear" and that the "documentation is astonishing". He goes on to say that the "style, the language, the words" are a good illustration of the "beauty that prevails throughout the treatise".

In another 1952 review, John Synge notes that the book is "backed by a vast erudition", but isn’t overpowering, saying “the style is sprightly and the author is singularly successful in putting himself and the reader in the place of each physicist". He goes on to say that Whittaker, with great skill, is able to “mingle the atmosphere of contemporary confusion which always accompanies scientific progress with an appreciation of what is actually going on, as viewed in light of later knowledge."

In a fifth 1952 review, Stephen Toulmin refers to Whittaker’s original edition as a standard reference, but that a supplement was almost immediately required to cover later developments. He states that physicists in the first-half of the twentieth century had a difficult time "keeping afloat on the tide of new theories and discoveries” and that Whittaker’s position historian of science had been “quite inaccessible". He goes on to say that “we are luck in having Professor Whittaker once more as our guide.”

Other 1952 reviews include one where the book is said to be "in a class by itself" and is summarized as a "high-level account" of the steps in the development of the classical theory of electromagnetism and stated that it is "well documented and extraordinarily comprehensive." The Journal of the American Medical Association published a review which notes that the book's treatment of the historical developments with the aid of partial differential equations and vector analysis "will discourage the majority of medical readers", but that it "must, however, be commended as scholarly, accurate, and, in the nonmathematical passages, fascinating." A review out of the Mathematical Research Group at New York University praises the book for being comprehensive and well documented with an "author index that approaches perfection" and a "lucid expository style and the detailed development are well suited to the material". It goes on to strongly recommend the book to all physicists, stating that "to those working in electromagnetics with knowledge of their subject derived solely derived from current texts and articles the material will come as a revelation." The reviewer states that he awaits the second volume with a "certain breathless expectancy" and suggests that the publisher cut the price of the book in third so as to triple sales. Philosophical Studies published a review with a more reserved tone, mentioning only that the original book was a "classic" and giving a brief account of the differences in the content between the two. It states, however that a "great amount of space is devoted to the work of the Irish school", including scientists such as George Berkeley, Joseph Black, Robert Boyle, George Francis FitzGerald, Walter Hartley, Joseph Larmor, James McCullagh, William Thomson, Sir George Stokes, and Thomas Preston, among others.

Analysis

Arthur Tyndall, in his 1951 review, stated the book is "rich in experimental fact", with comparatively fewer mathematical sections, with notable exceptions such as those on Lorentz and Maxwell, saying that "this new volume is not a heavy treatise in theoretical physics, as perhaps its name might suggest". William McCrea noted that the book is "a history of theories", but also provides "very clear statements of the experimental discoveries at all stages." He goes on to note that the book focuses on the developments of the aether theories and electricity, which McCrea states are the most fundamental parts of physics, but is also informative in other relevant areas of physics, such as elasticity and thermodynamics. Vic Twersky noted that the book is more than just a historical account, but that it simultaneously provides a "concise analytic development of the significant electromagnetic equations". He notes that the derivations show great ingenuity and originality and that the "many asides and letters which reveal the humans within the physicists make fascinating reading". Some reviewers commented on the new chapter on classical radiation theory, including Tyndall who notes that the material was barely covered in the first edition and was a natural addition that helps pave the way for the second volume and Cart Eckart who says that the history of spectra and thermal radiation is "given its proper place in the historical perspective."

Several reviewers criticized the book for certain omissions, including Eckart, who criticized Whittaker for leaving out Euclid and Lobatchewsky and points to this and the fact that Whittaker continued to write about the aether from a nineteenth century perspective as defects he would have ignored in a lesser volume. Victor Lenzen states that he disagrees with Whittaker on a point of emphases, especially as it relates to not mentioning Joseph Henry outside a single footnote. He also mentions Whittaker's distinction between Platonic and Aristotelian philosophies where he says Whittaker sides with Aristotle's empirical methods, while he believes that Plato was more prophetic of the future of mathematical methods in science.

Volume II: The modern theories

The second volume, subtitled the modern theories, was originally published in 1951 by Thomas Nelson and Sons. The book is the continuation of Whittaker's survey of the history of physics into the period 1900-1926 and describes the revolution in physics over the first quarter of the 20th century. The major historical developments covered in the book include the special theory of relativity, old quantum theory, matrix mechanics, and wave mechanics.

Chapter two of the book is highly controversial, and constitutes Whittaker's major role in the relativity priority dispute. Whittaker's view on the history of special relativity is that Lorentz and Poincare had successfully developed the theory prior to Einstein and that priority belonged to them. Despite Whittaker's objection, scientific consensus remains strongly in favor of Einstein's priority on the theory, with authors noting that while the theories of Poincare and Lorentz are mathematically and experimentally equivalent to Einstein's theory, they are not based on the relativistic postulates and do not constitute what is now known as Einstein's relativity. While parts of the book have received notable praise, due to its role in the historical controversy, the book overall has been said to fall short of the standards of the others and it has historically received many fewer citations.

Overview

Volume II: The modern theories
Chapter	Title
1	The age of Rutherford
2	The relativity theory of Poincare and Lorentz
3	The beginnings of quantum theory
4	Spectroscopy in the older quantum theory
5	Gravitation
6	Radiation and atoms in the older quantum theory
7	Magnetism and electromagnetism
8	The discovery of matrix-mechanics
9	The discovery of wave-mechanics

The first chapter, the age of Rutherford, discusses the state of empirical physics at the turn of the twentieth century. Chapter two discusses is on the origins of special relativity and is highly controversial, and is the base of Whittaker's role in the relativity priority dispute. In this chapter, as the title suggests, Whittaker gives priority for special relativity to Hendrik Lorentz and Henri Poincaré as opposed to the generally accepted crediting of Albert Einstein, a point for which Whittaker has been rebuked by many scholars.

Chapters three and four detail the developments of old quantum theory and deal mostly with "complicated experimental facts and their preliminary explanations". Chapter three covers early developments in old quantum theory, discussing Max Planck's contributions to physics and touching on Einstein and Arnold Sommerfeld. Chapter four, on spectroscopy in old quantum theory, discusses many of Niels Bohr's precursors, including Arthur W. Conway, Penry Vaughan Bevan, John William Nicholson, and Niels Bjerrum. Chapter five switches to gravitation, discussing the history of cosmology and the general theory of relativity. Chapter six returns to quantum theory and describes the connection between older and more modern concepts in physics, discussing phenomena and theories such as Louis de Broglie's matter waves, Bose statistics, and Fermi statistics. The final two chapters give an account of the birth of quantum mechanics. Matrix mechanics is discussed in chapter eight, including the Heisenberg picture and the introduction of physical operators. Wave mechanics, including Erwin Schrodinger and Schrodinger's equation, is discussed in the final chapter.

Reception

In a 1954 book review of the second volume, Max Born praised both volumes of the expanded and revised second edition, saying "[t]his second volume is a magnificent work, excellent not only through a brilliant style and clarity of expression, but also through an incredible scholarship and erudition" and that "this work makes us look forward keenly to the promised third volume". Born believes that a book like this one is a "most essential contribution to our literature and should be read by every student of physics and of al sciences connected with physics, including scientific history and philosophy." Born singles out chapters three and four on the development of old quantum theory, calling them "the most amazing feats of learning, insight, and discriminations". He also singles out chapter five, on gravitation, as being "perfect" due to Whittaker's own scholarship in the field, going on to say it is "the most readable and elucidating short presentation of general relativity and cosmology". In his 1956 book Physics in My Generation, Born goes on to call it an "excellent book" and talks about using the first edition as a reference when he was a student.

Freeman Dyson, in a 1954 review, said the second volume is "more limited and professional in its scope" than the first volume, giving a "clear, logical account of the sequence of events in the intellectual struggles which led up to relativity and quantum mechanics." He calls the volume a "mathematical textbook" on the theory of relativity and quantum mechanics, emphasizing a historical approach, as it explains all the necessary mathematics. He states that "Whittaker's two volumes reflect faithfully the different climates of science in the two periods they cover" and goes on to say that although he is unable to comment on the book’s historical accuracy, he thinks "it is likely that this is the most scholarly and generally authoritative history of its period that we shall ever get."

In the opening remarks of his 30 November 1954 address to the Royal Society, president Edgar Adrian states that Whittaker is perhaps the most well-known British mathematician of the time, due to his "numerous, varied, and important contributions" and the offices which he had held, but that of all his works, this History is probably the most important, while he notes that Whittaker's books on analytical dynamics and modern analysis have been widely influential both in the UK and internationally. He singles out the then-recently published second volume as a "great work" which gives "a critical appreciation of the development of physical theory up to the year 1925." He goes on to say that all of Whittaker's writings showcase his "powers of arrangement and exposition" which are of "a most unusual order". He closes by saying that the "astonishing quantity and quality of his work is probably unparalleled in modern mathematics and it is most appropriate that the Royal Society should confer on Whittaker its most distinguished award", referring to Whittaker's receipt of the Copley Medal in 1954.

In a 1954 review Rolf Hagedorn states that "One need read only a few pages of the book to sense the thoroughness and conscientiousness of the whole work". He states the book is an invaluable reference and that it is "essential for any library". He goes on to say that Whittaker "brings the reader to real understanding by a coherent mathematical description enabling him to follow the development step by step" and that the "clarity and didactic construction make it a pleasure to follow". Other 1954 reviews include which opens with: "The present volume is not, as the title would suggest, merely a 26-year extension of the work originally written by Sir. Edmond Whittaker under the same title in 1910. It is, rather, a thorough and authoritative chronicle of the development of theoretical physics from in the period 1900-1926, including atomic structure, special relativity, [old] quantum theory, general relativity, matrix mechanics, and wave mechanics". In another William Fuller Brown Jr. notes that the book is a history of published papers rather than a history of the scientists who published them, but goes on to say that the book is illuminating and the reader "will get from it a better appreciation of the process of scientific discovery. Soil Science published a review which says "the book is not designed for popular reading, yet it can be readily understood by those who are reasonably well trained in mathematics", but praises the book, saying it "has permanent value". The Astronomical Society of the Pacific published a review which mentions that "the theoretical aspects of the subject are emphasized throughout the book" and that "[i]t is unlikely that readers without previous training in mathematical physics will comprehend these parts of the book ; but for such persons, this volume provides a perceptive and authoritative account of the chronological development of the subject".

A review by P. W. Bridgman in 1956 says "The readers first impression at this formidable treatise, I believe, will almost invariably be one of stupefaction at the industry and versatility of the author, who has been able to assimilate and critically review so much." He goes on to say that older physicists would also "find it an epitome" of their "own experience", and that it would recount for them "many critical situations".

Analysis

In a September 1953 letter to Albert Einstein published in 1971, Max Born writes that, other than the relativity priority issues, it was "particularly unpleasant" for him that Whittaker "had woven all sorts of personal information into his account of quantum mechanics" while Born's role in the development was "extolled". But states in the commentary in 1971 that the book is "a brilliant and historic philosophical work" which he found "extremely useful" in his earlier years. In a 1954 book review, Born praises the book for its "extremely careful" record of "obscure or forgotten papers which contain some essential new idea though perhaps in an imperfect form". And points out that the last two chapters of the book give a "detailed and lively account of the birth of quantum mechanics in both of its forms, matrix mechanics and wave mechanics." He also praises Whittaker for setting aside his philosophical interests, saying "Whittaker the conscientious historian of science, has the upper hand over Whittaker the metaphysician, and it is just this feature which makes the book a safe guide through the tangle of events". Born states that the title of the second chapter, or "the historical view expressed by it", is the only point where Born does not share Whittaker's opinion. Born also points out that the book goes beyond what ordinary textbooks can do, which he believes offer students "the shortest and simplest way to knowledge and understanding", and "are in cases not only unhistorical but a distortion of history".

Freeman Dyson, in his 1954 review, remarks that the second volume has, by necessity, a "very different style from the first" due to the rapid mathematical development in the early 1900s. He summarizes the first volume as a description of "historical accidents", which resulted in changes in the way scientists thought about the problems, with discussions of the connections between physics and the more general philosophical climate of the times, while saying the second volume covers the history of physics when the progress was determined by the "speed with which observations could be understood and expressed in exact mathematical terms".

In his 1954 Nature review, Rolf Hagedorn notes that readers should be familiar with the book differential, integral calculus, and linear algebra, saying "is not written for the layman interested in the history of science, and certainly does not belong to the category of popular science books." He praises the book for justifying each statement with "at least one quotation", stating he estimates the total to be greater than one thousand. He goes on to say that "it is inconceivable that an author with such a profound knowledge of his sources could have overlooked any important fact." He also acknowledges that the book is sometimes hard to read due to the "condensed style" as well as "the fact that he often employs the nomenclature used in original work instead of that which would be used to-day."

In his 1956 book review, P. W. Bridgman states that it is "doubtless" that the most controversial part of the book is in giving priority to Lorentz and Poincare for special relativity, but chooses not to defend the priority of Einstein, deferring the readers to Max Born's responses. He does state that it "is to be remembered, however, that Whittaker was in the thick of things during the development of the theory, and there is much forgotten history". He praises Whittaker for highlighting the "little known pre-history" for the mass-energy relation. Bridgman also notes that the volume does not discuss whether the "aether" should be considered superfluous in light of the special and general theories of relativity, but notes the preface to the original edition argues to keep the word aether to describe the quantum vacuum.

Special relativity priority dispute

Further information: Relativity priority dispute

Photo of Albert Einstein in 1947. Einstein was made famous in part by his development of special relativity, a theory which Whittaker has claimed was already developed by Henri Poincare and Hendrik Lorentz.

Photo of Max Born from the 1930s. Born was a pioneer of quantum mechanics and a friend of Whittaker's, but he did not accept Whittaker's view on the history of special relativity.

Photos of Henri Poincaré and Hendrik Lorentz. Whittaker gave them credit for the development of the special theory of relativity, though the claim is highly contested.

In the second volume, a chapter titled "The Relativity Theory of Poincaré and Lorentz" credits Henri Poincaré and Hendrik Lorentz for developing special relativity, and especially alluded to Lorentz's 1904 paper (dated by Whittaker as 1903), Poincaré's St. Louis speech (The Principles of Mathematical Physics) of September 1904, and Poincaré's June 1905 paper. He attributed to Einstein's special relativity paper only little importance, which he said "set forth the relativity theory of Poincaré and Lorentz with some amplifications, and which attracted much attention". Roberto Torretti states, in his 1983 book Relativity and Geometry, "Whittaker's views on the origin of special relativity have been rejected by the great majority of scholars", citing Max Born, Gerald Holton, Charles Scribner, Stanley Goldberg, Elie Zahar, Tetu Hirosige, Kenneth F. Schaffner, and Arthur I. Miller. While he notes that G. H. Keswani sides with Whittaker, though "he somewhat tempers the latter's view". Miller, in his 1981 book, writes that the "lack of historic credibility" of the second chapter had been "demonstrated effectively" by Holton's 1960 article on the origins of special relativity.

Max Born rebuttals

Born wrote a letter to Einstein in September 1953 where he explained to Einstein that Whittaker, a friend of his, was publishing the second volume which is "peculiar in that Lorentz and Poincare are credited" with the development of special relativity while Einstein's papers are treated as "less important". He goes on to tell Einstein that he had done all he could over the previous three years to "dissuade Whittaker from carrying out his plan", mentioning that Whittaker "cherished" the idea and "loved to talk" about it. He told Einstein that Whittaker insists that all the important featured were developed by Poincare while Lorentz "quite plainly had the physical interpretation". Born said this annoyed him as Whittaker is a "great authority in the English speaking countries" and was worried that "many people are going to believe him". Einstein reassures Born that there is nothing to worry about in an October response, saying "Don't lose any sleep over your friend's book. Everybody does what he considers right or, in deterministic terms, what he has to do. If he manages to convince others, that is their own affair." He states that he does not find it sensible to defend the results of his research as somehow belonging to him. In the 1971 commentary on this response Born says that Einstein's response simply proves his "utter indifference to fame and glory".

In his 1954 book review, Born states that "there is much to be said in favour of Whittaker’s judgment. From the mathematical standpoint the Lorentz transformations contain the whole of special relativity, and there seems to be no doubt that Poincare was, perhaps a little ahead of Einstein, aware of most of the important physical consequences". Though he goes on to side with the "general use in naming relativity after Einstein", though "without disregarding the great contributions of Lorentz and Poincare." Born expands on these thoughts in his 1956 book, where he points out a response from Einstein to Dr. Carl Seelig in which Einstein was asked about the scientific literature which most influenced his special theory of relativity. Einstein points out that he knew only the work by Lorentz from the 1890s. Born says this "makes the situation perfectly clear." He points out that the 1905 papers on relativity and light quantum were connected, and the research was independent of Lorentz’ and Poincare’s later work. He goes on to highlight Einstein’s "audacity" in "challenging Isaac Newton’s established philosophy, the traditional concepts of space and time." This, for Born, "distinguishes Einstein’s work from his predecessors and gives us the right to speak of Einstein’s theory of relativity, in spite of Whittaker’s different opinion."

George Holton rebuttal

In his explicit rebuttal of 1960, Holton notes that Einstein's paper "was indeed one of a number of contributions by many different authors", but goes on to point out that Whittaker's assessment was lacking and plainly wrong at places. He notes that crediting Lorentz with a 1903 rather than 1904 paper was "not merely a mistake", but rather is at least a "symbolic mistake" that is "symbolic of the way a biographer's preconceptions interact with his material." He goes on to say that Whittaker insinuated that Einstein's work was based on Lorentz's despite the statements by Einstein and his colleagues to the contrary, and that there were multiple pieces of evidence in the 1905 paper that implies Einstein did not know of Lorentz's later work, including the fact that Einstein derived the Lorentz transform while Lorentz assumed it and that Einstein was acute in giving credit to others whose work influenced his own. He also points out a key difference between the papers in which Einstein argues that the "laws of electrodynamics and optics" were "valid in all frames of reference" to the order of v/c, whereas Lorentz claimed, as a "key point" in his 1904 paper, "to have extended the theory to the second order in v/c". He notes finally that Planck had pointed out in 1906 that Einstein's expression for the mass of charged particles was "far less suitable than Lorentz's". Holton goes on to note the "equally significant fact" that Lorentz's paper was "not on the special relativity as we understand the term since Einstein", as his "fundamental assumptions are not relativistic". He goes on to say that Lorentz never claimed credit for relativity and in fact referred to it as Einstein's relativity. He notes finally that Lorentz's formulation was valid only for small v/c, but the point of Einstein's theory was general validity. Holton has written other works on the history of special relativity as well, defending Einstein's priority.

Rebuttals from other notable scholars

Roberto Torretti, in his 1983 book, notes the theory set out by Poincare and Lorentz was both "experimentally indistinguishable from and mathematically equivalent to" Einstein's On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies, but their philosophy is very different than the special relativity of Einstein. Torretti notes that their theory, in stark contrast to Einstein's, relies on the assumption of an aether which interacted with systems moving across it, affecting the clocks shrinking bodies. He goes on to note that it is doubtless that Einstein could have drawn inspiration from the works of Poincare, He points out that Poincare's theory was not universally applicable like Einstein's and that it does not rest on a modification of the notions of space and time. He also mentions that Lorentz regularly referred to the theory as Einstein's, but that Poincare never truly became a relativist, who referred to the theory as Lorentz's. Torretti notes that Poncare's failure to catch on was his notorious conventionalism, and the fact that he may have been a little too proud to admit that "he had lost the glory of founding 20th-century physics to a young Swiss patent clerk."

Charles Scribner, in his 1984 article Henri Poincaré and the Principle of Relativity, stated his belief that Whittaker's view on the matter "fails to do justice to the available historical evidence" and notes that it may also "create obstacles for students". He continues saying "Einstein played a unique role in establishing the universal validity of the principle of relativity and in revealing and capitalizing on its radical implications." He notes several of the points later raised by Holton in his 1960 rebuttal, including discrepancy in powers of v/c and that Poincare never truly accepted the theory in the manner Einstein had put forward.

The controversy is mentioned in other books on the history of science as well. In his book Subtle is the Lord, Abraham Pais, wrote a scathing review of Whittaker, writing the treatment of special relativity "shows how well the author's lack of physical insight matches his ignorance of the literature", phrasing that was rebuked by at least one notable reviewer as "scurrilous" and "lamentable". Somewhat paradoxically, he also states that both he and his colleagues believe Whittaker's original edition "is a masterpiece". He further notes that he would not have felt the need to comment if the book had not "raised questions in many minds about the priorities in the discovery of this theory". A more sympathetic review come from Clifford Truesdell, who wrote that Whittaker "aroused colossal antagonism by trying to set the record straight on the basis of print and record rather than recollection and folklore and professional propaganda,…", in his 1984 book An Idiot's Fugitive Essays on Science

Other disputes

In relation to the early development of general relativity and the equivalence principle, Roberto Torretti, in his 1983 book, criticized Whittaker for attributing to Max Planck (1907) the implication that "all energy must gravitate" even though Planck was "saying the opposite" according to Torretti.

Release details

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• Original printing of the first volume:—Whittaker, E. T. (1951). A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity: The Classical Theories. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). Thomas Nelson and Sons.
• Original printing of the second volume:—Whittaker, E. T. (1953). A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity: The Modern Theories. Vol. 2 (2nd ed.). Thomas Nelson and Sons.
• First reprinting of the edition, combines both volumes as one:—Whittaker, E. T. (1958). A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity: The Modern Theories (2nd ed.). Thomas Nelson and Sons. OCLC 636972310.
• Reprint by the American Institute of Physics and Tomash Publishing:—Whittaker, E. T. (1987). A history of the theories of aether and electricity (2nd ed.). Tomash Publ. LCCN 87001851. OCLC 1067614173.
• Reprint by Dover Publications:—Whittaker, E. T. (1989). A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity: Vol. I: The Classical Theories; Vol. II: The Modern Theories, 1900-1926 (2nd ed.). New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-26126-3. OCLC 20357018.

Long term impact

In one of Whittaker's 1958 obituaries, WIlliam Hunter McCrea remarks that the books are achievements so remarkable that "as time passes, the risk will be of all Whittaker's other great achievements tending to be overlooked in comparison." He predicts that future readers would "have difficulty" in acknowledging it was only the result of "a few years at both ends of a career of the highest distinction in other pursuits." In a 1956 obituary, Alexander Aitken calls the book series Whittaker's "magnum opus", amid a career of distinction, and expresses regret that Whittaker was unable to complete the promised third volume. Other obituaries include one that claims that the two volumes of the second edition "form Whittaker's magnum opus", amid many other distinctions, including 4 standard works other than the History. In a fourth obituary the work is said to be "brilliant" and a "colossal undertaking involving wide reading and accurate understanding".

The book was included in a curated 1958 list of "important books on science" in a Science article by Ivy Kellerman Reed and Alexander Gode, where the volumes are said to be the "first exhaustive history of the classical and modern theories of aether and electricity". In 1968, John L. Heilbron states that the "great value" of Whittaker's second volume on quantum mechanics lies in its ability to connect developments in quantum mechanics with those in other fields as well as its "rich citations", going on to recommend readers it and several other books on the history of science.

John David Jackson recommends both volumes to his readers in the preface of the first edition of the famous graduate textbook Classical Electrodynamics (1962), which has been reprinted in all later editions, including the standard third edition of 1999. Jackson give a brief account of the history of the mathematical development of electrodynamics and says the "story of the development of our understanding of electricity and magnetism is, of course, much longer and richer than the mention of a few names from one century would indicate." He goes on to tell his readers to consult both "authoritative" volumes for a "detailed account of the fascinating history".

In a 1988 Isis review of a combined reprint of the second edition, including both the first and second volumes bound together, published in New York by the American Institute of Physics and Tomash Publishers in 1981, science historian Bruce J. Hunt says that the books stand up "remarkably well" to time and that it is unlikely that others would try to write such books in modern times, as the "encyclopedic sweep is too broad" and the "purely internalist focus too narrow" for recent trends, though he says "we can be glad that someone did write it" and that it is, perhaps, fortunate that Whittaker did so such a long time ago. He goes on to state his appreciation for the new reprint. In contrast to the first volume on the classical theories, Hunt notes that the second volume, the modern theories, is "rarely cited today, except in connection with this controversy" and that it has had "relatively little influence" on later publications in the history of modern physics. He goes on to say the first volume "continues to be a standard reference". He says that book's greatest weakness is that it lacks a "real historical sense", that it misses wider contexts and is therefore incomplete, as it focuses on theories rather than people. Hunt closes by noting that the book is, in many ways, a "relic of a past age", but remains "very useful" when "approached critically" and praises Whittaker as "one of the last and most thoughtful of the great Victorian mathematical physicists."

A 2003 review of a book by Olivier Darrigol, L. Pearce Williams compares the newer book with Whittaker's second edition, which he calls "old but still valuable". In 2007 Stephen G. Brush included the second volume of the second edition in a curated list of books on the history of light-quantum developments, such as black body radiation. Others scholars have singled out the original volume, including French science historian Olivier Darrigol who, in a 2010 article, highlighted the work as an authoritative reference and Abraham Pais who states that both him and his colleagues believe the book to be a "masterpiece" in his 1982 book on Einstein.

See also

• The Maxwellians:—Book by Bruce J. Hunt detailing the development of electromagnetism in the years after the publication of Maxwell's Treatise
• Timeline of electromagnetism and classical optics:—Dynamic list of major developments in the history of electromagnetism and history of optics
• History of chemistry:—The history of chemistry from ancient through modern times
• History of electrical engineering:—Details the development of electrical engineering

Further reading

On relativity priority

• Born, Max (1956). Physics in my generation. Pergamon Press. OCLC 427382550.
• Holton, Gerald (1960). "On the Origins of the Special Theory of Relativity". American Journal of Physics. 28 (7): 627–636. Bibcode:1960AmJPh..28..627H. doi:10.1119/1.1935922. ISSN 0002-9505.
• Scribner, Charles Jr. (1964). "Henri Poincaré and the principle of relativity". American Journal of Physics. 32 (9): 672–678. Bibcode:1964AmJPh..32..672S. doi:10.1119/1.1970936.
• Born, Max; Einstein, Albert (1971). The Born-Einstein letters: correspondence between Albert Einstein and Max and Hedwig Born from 1916-1955, with commentaries by Max Born. Walker. ISBN 978-0-333-11267-0. OCLC 243246354.
• Miller, Arthur I. (1981). Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity : emergence (1905) and early interpretation, 1905-1911. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co., Advanced Book Program. ISBN 0-201-04680-6. OCLC 5894058.
• Torretti, R. V. (1983). Relativity and geometry. Pergamon Press. ISBN 0-08-026773-4. OCLC 230608803.

Notable reviews

• Wilson, E. B. (1913). "Review: E. T. Whittaker, A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity from the Age of Descartes to the Close of the Nineteenth Century". Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society. 19 (8): 423–427. doi:10.1090/S0002-9904-1913-02381-4. ISSN 0002-9904.
• Tyndall, A. M. (1951). "History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity". Physics Bulletin. 2 (23): 7. doi:10.1088/0031-9112/3/23/008. ISSN 0031-9112.
• Eckart, Carl (1952). "History of the Theories of the Aether and Electricity (Whittaker, Sir Edmund)". Journal of Chemical Education. 29 (5): 265. Bibcode:1952JChEd..29..265E. doi:10.1021/ed029p265.3. ISSN 0021-9584.
• Lenzen, V. F. (1952). "A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity, the Classical Theories. Edmund Whittaker". Isis. 43 (3): 293–294. doi:10.1086/348142. ISSN 0021-1753.
• McCrea, W. H. (1952). "Review of History of Theories of the Aether and Electricity. I". The Mathematical Gazette. 36 (316): 138–141. doi:10.2307/3610345. ISSN 0025-5572. JSTOR 3610345.
• Miller, Julius S. (1952). "Book Reviews". School Science and Mathematics. 52 (6): 498–508. doi:10.1111/j.1949-8594.1952.tb06911.x. ISSN 1949-8594.
• Synge, John L. (1952). "Review of A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity: (The Classical Theories)". The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science. 3 (10): 204–207. doi:10.1093/bjps/III.10.204. ISSN 0007-0882. JSTOR 685564.
• Toulmin, Stephen (1952). "X.—NEW BOOKS". Mind. LXI (242): 288–289. doi:10.1093/mind/LXI.242.288. ISSN 0026-4423.
• Born, Max (1954). "REVIEWS". The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science. V (19): 261–263. doi:10.1093/bjps/V.19.261. ISSN 0007-0882.
• Dyson, Freeman J. (1954). "Review of A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity, Vol. II, WWhittakerEdmund". Scientific American. 190 (3): 92–94. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0354-92. ISSN 0036-8733.
• Hagedorn, Rolf (1954). "Foundations of Modern Physics". Nature. 173 (4410): 838–839. Bibcode:1954Natur.173..838H. doi:10.1038/173838a0. ISSN 1476-4687. S2CID 4296379.
• Bridgman, P. W. (1956). "History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity. Volume II, The Modern Theories, 1900-1926. Edmund Whittaker". Isis. 47 (4): 428–430. doi:10.1086/348516. ISSN 0021-1753.

External links

• Maidment, Alison; McCartney, Mark (2 September 2019). "'A man who has infinite capacity for making things go': Sir Edmund Taylor Whittaker (1873–1956)". British Journal for the History of Mathematics. 34 (3): 179–193. doi:10.1080/26375451.2019.1619410. ISSN 2637-5451. S2CID 186939363.
• McConnell, James (1958). "Whittaker's Correlation of Physics and Philosophy". Proceedings of the Edinburgh Mathematical Society. 11 (1): 57–68. doi:10.1017/S0013091500014383. ISSN 0013-0915.
• Hardie, C. D. (1943). "Professor Whittaker and the History of Physics". Isis. 34 (4): 344–346. doi:10.1086/347833. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 225643.
• "Whittaker and the Aether". www.mathpages.com. Retrieved 11 September 2020.
• Navarro, Jaume (2020), Forstner, Christian; Walker, Mark (eds.), "Biography or Obituary? The Historiographical Value of the Death of the Ether", Biographies in the History of Physics: Actors, Objects, Institutions, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 281–300, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-48509-2_16, ISBN 978-3-030-48509-2, retrieved 3 October 2020
• Gingras, Yves (1 March 2008). "The Collective Construction of Scientific Memory: The Einstein-Poincaré Connection and its Discontents, 1905–2005". History of Science. 46 (1): 75–114. Bibcode:2008HisSc..46...75G. doi:10.1177/007327530804600103. ISSN 0073-2753. S2CID 52065287.