Triratna Buddhist Community

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Friends of the Western Buddhist Order (FWBO)
Formation1967
TypeNew Religious Movement
Leadership
WBO
Key people
Sangharakshita
Part of a series on
Buddhism
History
Buddhist texts
Practices
Nirvāṇa
Traditions
Buddhism by country

The Friends of the Western Buddhist Order (FWBO) is an association of Buddhists, and others who aspire to its path of mindfulness, under the leadership of the Western Buddhist Order. It was founded in the UK in 1967, and describes itself as "an international network dedicated to communicating Buddhist truths in ways appropriate to the modern world".[1] In keeping with Buddhist traditions, it also pays attention to contemporary ideas, particularly drawn from Western philosophy, psychotherapy, and art. Along with Soka Gakkai and the New Kadampa Tradition, the FWBO is one of the largest Buddhist new religious movements in the UK, supported by a federation of some 30 urban centres and retreat centres. More than 100 groups and centres worldwide are part of the FWBO family, including in North America, Australasia and Europe. Its second largest following is in India, where it is known as Trailokya Bauddha Mahasangha Sahayaka Gana (TBMSG).[2]

Historically there has been controversy surrounding the FWBO. [3] It has been accused of radicalism[4], and criticised for what some commentators have seen as unorthodox teachings and unconventional ritual practices. During the 1990s, some order members, including its founder and former leader, Sangharakshita,[5] were accused of sexually exploiting a number of younger members. It has also been accused of misogyny.[6] The FWBO has been considered by some commentators on Buddhism to have features of a cult[7], and it is included in a number of website listings of cult, controversial and new religious groups.[8][9][10].

Practices and activities

Meditation is the common thread through FWBO activities.[11] Order members teach two practices to friends: (a) "The mindfulness of breathing" (anapanasati), in which practitioners focus on the rise and fall of the breath;[12] and (b) "The metta bhavana", which approximately translates from the original Pali as "the cultivation of lovingkindness".[13] These practices are felt to be complimentary in promoting equanimity and friendliness towards others. Some friends of the order may have little, if any, other involvement in its activities, making the FWBO comparable, in this respect, to the US new vipassana movement, personified by Jack Kornfield, Gil Fronsdal and the Insight Meditation Society, which insist that mindfulness is essential to Buddhism, but that Buddhism is not essential to mindfulness.

The founder, Sangharakshita, described meditation as having four phases. The first two, he felt, are "calming" or "samatha" practices, and the last two are "insight" or "vipassana" practices. For those not ordained into the WBO, the first two are given almost exclusive emphasis.[14]

These phases are:

  1. Integration. The main practice at this stage is the mindfulness of breathing, which has the effect of "integrating the psyche" - improving mindfulness and concentration, and reducing psychological conflict.
  2. Positive emotion. The second aspect of samatha is developing positivity - an other-regarding, life-affirming attitude. The Brahmavihara meditations, especially the 'metta bhavana' or cultivation of loving kindness meditations, are the key practices for developing 'positive emotion'.
  3. Spiritual death. The next stage is to develop insight into the emptiness of the self and reality. Meditations at this stage include considering the elements of which self and world are composed; contemplating impermance, particularly that of the body; contemplating suffering; and contemplating Shunyata. It is considered important to approach these practices from a strong base of integration and positive emotion.
  4. Spiritual rebirth. the FWBO teaches that with the development of insight, and the death of the limited ego-self, a person is spiritually reborn. Practices which involve the visualization of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas become the main practices used in this phase. At ordination each dharmachari(ni) is given a more advanced visualisation meditation on a particular Buddhist figure.

FWBO centres also teach Buddhist scripture, yoga and other methods of self-improvement, some of which are felt by some commentators to come from outside the Buddhist tradition.[15] Recently FWBO activities have begun to include outdoor festivals, online meditation courses, arts festivals, poetry and writing workshops, tai chi, karate, and pilgrimages to Buddhist holy sites in India. For many years, the FWBO charity Karuna Trust has raised money for aid projects in India.[16]

As among Buddhists generally, Puja is a ritual practice at some FWBO events, intended to awaken the desire to liberate all beings from suffering. The most common ritual practiced in the FWBO consists of the puja section at the beginning of the Bodhicaryavatara of Shantideva.

Retreats provide a chance to focus on meditational practice more intensely, in a residential context outside of a retreatant's everyday life.[17] FWBO retreats can be broadly categorized into meditation retreats, study retreats, and solitary retreats. Retreat lengths vary from short weekends to one or two weeks.

"Right livelihood" businesses generate funds for the movement, as well as providing environments for spiritual growth. Emphasis is placed on teamwork with other practitioners and making a contribution to the welfare of others, e.g. by funding social projects and considering ethical matters such as fair trade. The largest FWBO business is the Evolution chain of fairtrade gift shops.[18]

Many cities with an FWBO centre also have a residential community of Buddhists. The first of these communities was formed after a retreat where several of the participants wanted to continue retreat-style living. Since the most stable communities tended to be single sex, this has since become the main paradigm for FWBO communities.[19] Support from fellow practitioners in a community is seen to be effective in helping members make spiritual progress.[20]

For some, the jewel in the FWBO's crown in the UK is the London Buddhist Centre in Bethnal Green, east London, which offers drop-in lunchtime meditation sessions each weekday, open to beginners. The centre's courses for depression, based on the mindfulness-based cognitive behavioral therapy methodology of Jon Kabat-Zinn at the University of Massachusetts, featured in the Financial Times in 2008.[21] This is supported by the local authority, the London borough of Tower Hamlets.

Defining the movement

According to the FWBO, six characteristics define it:

  1. An ecumenical movement. The FWBO is not identified with any particular strand of Buddhism or Buddhist school, but draws inspiration from the full array of schools. It calls itself "ecumenical" rather than "eclectic" because it is founded on the premise that there is an underlying unity to all Buddhist schools.[22]
  2. "Going for refuge" is central. "Going for Refuge to the Three Jewels" - meaning the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha - is considered to be what makes someone a Buddhist[23]
  3. A unified structure. Unlike some Buddhist sangha, the FWBO does not propagate a monastic lineage. Sangharakshita devised a non-monastic ordination system, whilst also allowing the undertaking of the "anagarika" precept which enjoins celibacy. Identical ordination is open to both sexes. While the movement regards single-sex activities as important to spiritual growth, men and women are recognised as being equally able to practice and develop spiritually.[24]
  4. An emphasis on spiritual friendship. In the FWBO there is a strong emphasis on the sangha, and spiritual friendship based on shared values. The FWBO teaches that spending time with friends who share ideals, and engaging in ritual practice with them, supports ethical living and the arising of the bodhicitta.[25]
  5. Teamwork. Working together in teams, in the spirit of generosity and with a focus on ethics, is considered a transformative spiritual practice.[26]
  6. Importance of art. Engagement in, and an appreciation of, the arts are considered to be a valuable aspect of spiritual practice. The FWBO teaches that a refinement of one's artistic tastes can help refine emotional sensitivity and provide a channel for the expression of right living, and spiritual growth.[27]

The Western Buddhist Order

The WBO is the focal-point of the FWBO.[28] The WBO is a network of friendships between individuals who have made personal commitments to the Buddha, the dharma and the sangha, in communion with others.[29] Order members are known as Dharmacharis (masculine) or Dharmacharinis (feminine), and they are ordained in accord with a ceremony formulated by the founder. At ordination they are given a religious name in Pali or Sanskrit.[30] While there is an informal hierarchy within the WBO, there are no higher ordinations. A small number of order members, however, take vows of celibacy and adopt a simpler lifestyle. Contrary to the traditional Buddhist structure of separating lay and monastic members, the WBO combines monastic and lay lifestyles under one ordination,[31] a practice not dissimilar to that which evolved down the centuries in various Japanese schools of Buddhism.[32]

Like followers of the Shingon school of Buddhism, order members observe ten precepts (ethical training rules).[33] These precepts are different from monastic vows and do not appear in the Vinaya Pitaka, but were formulated on the basis of the "dasa-kusala-dhammas" (ten wholesome actions). These are found in several places in the Pāli Canon, as well as in several Sanskrit sources. The karma sections of the fundamental meditation texts of all four schools of Tibetan Buddhism also list these acts as basic guidelines for any lay or ordained practitioner intent on observing the law of cause and effect.[34]

Beyond this, a commitment to personal dharma practice and to remain in communication with other members are the only requirements.[35] Ordination confers no special status, nor any specific responsibilities, although many order members choose to take on responsibilities for such things as teaching meditation and dharma. In mid-2008, there were around 1,500 members of the order, in more than 20 countries.[36]

The wider FWBO sangha

In the FWBO, as in the Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions, sangha is interpreted as the Buddhist community as a whole. In this instance, this includes friends (all those who attend meetings at centres are thus regarded), mitras, and order members. [citation needed]

Someone who regularly attends FWBO activities is considered to be a "friend." Friends do not have to consider themselves Buddhists, and can be of any faith, or none. Some people choose, after some time, to participate in a formal ceremony of affiliation, and thus become a "mitra." "Mitra" is Sanskrit for "friend", which in this case denotes a person who considers themselves Buddhist, who makes an effort to live in accordance with the five ethical precepts, and who feels that the FWBO is the appropriate spiritual community for them.

Those who wish to join the WBO must request ordination in writing. Following this, it can sometimes take several years to prepare for ordination. Preparation is an informal process, the focus of which is to deepen one's going for refuge.[37]

Some friends, mitras and order members decide, at least for a while, to study teachings from outside the FWBO, including non-Buddhist traditions such as Sufism.[38]

The FWBO after Sangharakshita

Sangharakshita retired from active leadership of the FWBO and WBO in 1995.[39] In 1997, the responsibility for ordination and spiritual leadership passed to the preceptor's college, based in Birmingham.[40] Since then Sangharakshita's health has declined. In 2000, the first chair of the preceptor's council was chosen by Sangharakshita. In future, this position will be elected by the WBO to five-year terms.[41]

In 2003 the public preceptors, responding to feedback from the order and the movement, decided to move away from a formal relationship to the order and movement, and to concentrate on the ordination of new members of the order, teaching and dharma practice. At the same time, to increase flexibility, the number of preceptors was expanded.

Controversies and criticism

In the 1990s a campaign was launched against FWBO, which, the order says, is run by a former lover of Sangharakshita named Mark Dunlop, with whom he lived in the early 1970s. [42] Actually this source (FWBO member Vishvapani) says this 'campaign' was started by 'several British Buddhists'. This campaign has focused on claims that Sangharakshita and a number of others had sexually exploited a number of younger members. Allegations were also made of cultish behaviour by at least one senior member, and of a climate of misogyny and manipulation.[43]

The FWBO and WBO have given detailed responses, both to the general allegations, and to the specific complaints of Mr Dunlop. [44] [45] In the aftermath of the controversy, some order members have stayed on, while others have resigned, though the movement has continued to grow in size, in what is said (by the FWBO?) to be a more relaxed and flexible atmosphere, in which they feel free to question and update the way things have been done, and to question Sangharakshita's teachings. To that extent, the campaign or controversy is apparently seen by the FWBO as having had some beneficial effects.

The most public criticism is found at a website called "FWBO Files"[46], with material first published in 1998, and in an article published in The Guardian in 1997."[47]. Both have met with responses from the FWBO, which says they are based on claims from a single highly motivated individual, [48] although both cite several sources. The UK Network of Buddhist Organisations (NBO) has also issued a response to attacks made on that organisation.[49] Mr Dunlop has continued his campaign of insinuations [50]

In recent years, The Guardian, and its sister Sunday newspaper, The Observer, have since run many supportive items, recommending FWBO activities to their readers. [51][52][53] An Education Guardian report lists FWBO as "A good starting point for children"[54]

Criticism on grounds of doctrine

Some commentators refer to the FWBO to be a Buddhist movement,[55] others suggest it may only be "pseudo-Buddhist".

Although Sangharakshita studied under, and in some cases received initiations from, eminent Buddhist teachers during his years in India, including Jagdish Kashyap, Dhardo Rimpoche, Dudjom Rinpoche, Dilgo Khyentse, and Jamyang Khyentse Rimpoche, some critics argue that he never worked closely enough with any of them to be considered their "dharma-heir".[56] According to these critics' academic theories, the FWBO thus lacks spiritual lineage, which some Buddhists believe to be important.[citation needed] Sangharakshita has written of his 'conviction that the less the FWBO is involved with 'Buddhist groups' and with individuals affiliated to existing Buddhist traditions, the better.' [57]

In describing itself as being a movement "appropriate to Western society", it has attracted the criticism that this implies that other Buddhist traditions are not so appropriate. For instance, Sangharakshita has criticised the teaching of so-called vipassana methods to people who do not have extensive experience of samatha meditation, arguing that this can lead to an imbalance, with alienating consequences. The result is that the FWBO criticizes - in the opinion of some,[who?] quite rightly - both orthodoxy (in the narrow sense) and libertarianism, and portrays itself as the balance between extremes.[58]

Sangharakshita's sex life and drug experimentation

While leading the order, Sangharakshita, who is described by Vessantara, a prominent author of FWBO-published books, as gay,[59] became involved in a number of sexual relationships.

Some critics have said that he violated the rules of the Theravada monastic code. In particular, he was criticised for wearing the robes of a monk in India, while allegedly having sex during periods in England. In 1999, this episode led a number of Indian mitras to criticise him, and to reject the TBMSG. A letter signed by 88 mitras from the Mumbai (Bombay) area said:

"...while claiming to be a properly ordained Buddhist monk, a Bhikshu, you showed no respect for the devout feelings Buddhists associated with the robe by indulging in sexual misconduct, experimenting with drugs and teaching the 'neutrality' of sexual activities. In our opinion, this final act of yours was nothing more than an attempt to cover up your misbehaviour as a monk while still holding onto the power and prestige which the yellow robe along with the epithets Bhikshu and Mahasthavir held in the eyes of the common people. Thus you have cheated us."[15]

Sangharakshita has never replied directly to such criticisms, but in September 2006 at an FWBO-operated blog discussion site, one order member, Adiccabandhu, gave what appears to be an authoritative account of the founder's thinking ("A reflection on the controversy around Sangarakshita, my teacher"):

"Sangharakshita asserts that all sex is unskilful, as it is an expression of greed for sense pleasure. To that extent, he says, he has been unskilful, but no further. He has always insisted that he understood his sexual relationships were consensual, and that people could, and often did, refuse. He believes he has done nothing for which he should apologise."

Sangharakshita has also confirmed that on two occasions, in 1969 and 1970, he experimented with "psychedelic" drugs. He said that, since he was often asked his opinion on the topic, he should be able to speak from experience.

Views on sexuality

Some disaffected members have complained that there has been "active promotion of homosexuality" by some [male] Order members.[60]. In contrast, concerns have been raised by some within the FWBO that these continuing attacks - now based on alleged events dating back up to three decades - are driven by homophobia and aversion, and that, in the spirit of Buddhism, the order should challenge discrimination and oppression.

In 1986, Sangharakshita wrote that the couple and nuclear family can be sources of neurosis.

"A couple consists, in fact, of two half-people, each of whom unconsciously invests part of his or her total being in the other: each is dependent on the other for the kind of psychological security that can be found, ultimately, only within oneself."(Sangharakshita, 1986, Alternative Traditions).

In 1997, The Guardian published a letter about the FWBO's single-sex teaching:[61] in which a reader said she knew of a man who found it hard to "correlate his deep and natural love for his partner with an insistence from members of the FWBO that spiritual enlightenment could only be gained by leading a single-sex existence."

Mr Dunlop alleges that some order members felt that sexuality is conditioned, and that, since same-sex communities appeared to be a source of harmony, homosexuality would not be neurotic in the same way as heterosexuality. In the 1990s, one writer argued that homoerotic interest could aid the development of "spiritual friendship".[62]

"Sexual interest on the part of a male Order member for a male Mitra [novice] can create a connection which may allow Kalyana Mitrata [spiritual friendship] to develop. Some, of course, are predisposed to this attraction, others have deliberately chosen to change their sexual preferences in order to use sex as a medium of Kalyana Mitrata - and to stay clear of the dangers of male-female relationships without giving up sex." (Subhuti, pub. Shabda, September 1986, p125).

Another criticism was made of an order member, the one-time leader of the Croydon Buddhist Centre, who was reported to have coerced FWBO members into having sex with him.[63] In the Guardian article the senior order member Subhuti was said to have criticised this behaviour as bearing characteristics of a cult. It is also said that one of the early men's communities at the retreat centre Padmaloka developed a culture of sexual exploitation.[64] Order member Tejananda wrote in Shabda in July 1998: [65]

'I know that a significant number of heterosexuals have, one way or another, found themselves persuaded into homosexual acts with more senior or experienced members of the Order during their involvement with the FWBO.'

In March 2003, an order member called Yashomitra published in Shabda an account of his sexual relationship with Sangharakshita[66]. He claimed that he was manipulated in having sex with the founder, and suggested that the same happened to dozens of men. In this account, he argued that the "FWBO did seek to undermine heterosexual relationships and family life. It did teach that homosexuality was superior to heterosexuality. Members were 'converted' to homosexuality through coercive psychological means. Coercion of any sort was not anathema within the FWBO." He resigned shortly after.

In a letter to The Times(March 9, 2002) one ex-member said it had "taken four years of psychotherapy to heal the damage done to me" as a result of his experiences while living at an FWBO centre.

Charges of misogyny and of being "anti-family"

Sangharakshita has argued that, at least in the early stages of their spiritual careers, men are more apt to commit themselves to the spiritual life than women.[67] Some critics of the organisation claim a culture of misogyny developed in the FWBO in the 1980s and that this was fed by single-sex activities, which bred ignorance of women and a sense of superiority among men.[68] Senior order member Subhuti says in his book, 'Women, men and angels,' that to be reborn as a woman was to be less spiritually able than to be reborn as a man.[69]

Organisation

The FWBO operates under a "friendly hierarchy,"[70] which is said to be dangerous when combined with enthusiasm for the teachings practiced - though how matters could be otherwise is far from clear.[71] In 1997, The Guardian article reported:

' ... Stephen Batchelor, a prominent Buddhist commentator and author of a book, Buddhism without Beliefs, ... says: "They [the FWBO] operate as a self-enclosed system and their writings have the predictability of those who believe they have all the answers. They are structured in a rigid hierarchy and do not seem to question the teachings of their leader. As with many new religious movements, their enthusiasm and unconventional convictions have the potential to lead to problems associated with 'cults' ..." '

References

  1. ^ "The Friends of the Western Buddhist Order", Links Page
  2. ^ Partridge, Christopher (2004), Encyclopedia of New Religions, Lion, p. 193, ISBN 0-7459-5073-6
  3. ^ Coleman, James William (2001), The New Buddhism: The Western Transformation of an Ancient Tradition, Oxford University Press, p. 115, ISBN 0-19-515241-7
  4. ^ Rawlinson, A (1997), The Book of Enlightened Masters, Chicago: Open Court, p. 501, ISBN 0-8126-9310-8
  5. ^ "Sangharakshita's home page", Links Page
  6. ^ Coleman, James William (2001), The New Buddhism: The Western Transformation of an Ancient Tradition, Oxford University Press ISBN=0-19-515241-7, p. 163, 171 and 144 {{citation}}: Missing pipe in: |publisher= (help)
  7. ^ Crook, John, "Dangers in Devotion: Buddhist Cults and the Tasks of a Guru - '...It is this that leads many of us to see the FWBO more as a cult than as a Buddhist institution or school in accordance with tradition.'", Western Chan Fellowship, Paper presented at the conference 'The Psychology of Awakening' at Dartington Hall, UK, October 1998
  8. ^ "Cult Information Centre". Links Page.
  9. ^ Hassan, Steven. "Freedom of Mind Center". Resource Center.
  10. ^ Ross, Rick. "The Rick A. Ross Institute for the Study of Destructive Cults, Controversial Groups and Movements". Links Page.
  11. ^ "FWBO: Meditation", Links Page
  12. ^ "FWBO: The mindfulness of breathing", Links Page
  13. ^ "FWBO: The metta bhavana", Links Page
  14. ^ Partridge, Christopher (2004), Encyclopedia of New Religions, Lion, p. 194, ISBN 0-7459-5073-6
  15. ^ Clarke, Peter (2005), Encyclopedia of New Religious Movements, London: Routledge, p. 197, ISBN 0-415-26707-2
  16. ^ Baumann, Martin (1998), "Working in the Right Spirit: The Application of Buddhist Right Livelihood in the Friends of the Western Buddhist Order", Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 5, ISSN 1076-9005
  17. ^ Barrett, D V (2001), The New Believers: Sects, 'Cults' and Alternative Religions, Cassell, p. 308, ISBN 0-304-355925
  18. ^ Baumann, Martin (1998), "Working in the Right Spirit: The Application of Buddhist Right Livelihood in the Friends of the Western Buddhist Order", Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 5, ISSN 1076-9005
  19. ^ Rawlinson, A (1997), The Book of Enlightened Masters, Chicago: Open Court, p. 506, ISBN 0-8126-9310-8
  20. ^ Coleman, James William (2001), The New Buddhism: The Western Transformation of an Ancient Tradition, Oxford University Press, p. 117, ISBN 0-19-515241-7
  21. ^ "Meditation or medication?", Links Page, Financial Times, 6 April 2008 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  22. ^ Barrett, D V (2001), The New Believers: Sects, 'Cults' and Alternative Religions, Cassell, p. 308, ISBN 0-304-355925
  23. ^ Partridge, Christopher (2004), Encyclopedia of New Religions, Lion, p. 194, ISBN 0-7459-5073-6
  24. ^ Barrett, D V (2001), The New Believers: Sects, 'Cults' and Alternative Religions, Cassell, p. 309, ISBN 0-304-355925
  25. ^ Coleman, James William (2001), The New Buddhism: The Western Transformation of an Ancient Tradition, Oxford University Press, p. 117, ISBN 0-19-515241-7
  26. ^ Baumann, Martin (1998), "Working in the Right Spirit: The Application of Buddhist Right Livelihood in the Friends of the Western Buddhist Order", Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 5, ISSN 1076-9005
  27. ^ Clarke, Peter (2005), Encyclopedia of New Religious Movements, London: Routledge, p. 197, ISBN 0-415-26707-2
  28. ^ Clarke, Peter (2005), Encyclopedia of New Religious Movements, London: Routledge, p. 197, ISBN 0-415-26707-2
  29. ^ Partridge, Christopher (2004), Encyclopedia of New Religions, Lion, p. 194, ISBN 0-7459-5073-6
  30. ^ Clarke, Peter (2005), Encyclopedia of New Religious Movements, London: Routledge, p. 198, ISBN 0-415-26707-2
  31. ^ Partridge, Christopher (2004), Encyclopedia of New Religions, Lion, p. 194, ISBN 0-7459-5073-6
  32. ^ Neither Monk nor Layman: Clerical Marriage in Modern Japanese Buddhism Richard Jaffe. Published by Princeton University Press and copyrighted, © 2002, by Princeton University Press ISBN 069107495X
  33. ^ Coleman, James William (2001), The New Buddhism: The Western Transformation of an Ancient Tradition, Oxford University Press, p. 117, ISBN 0-19-515241-7
  34. ^ Pali sources: the Majjhima Nikāya, (MN 41:8-14). (See also: DN 114, MN.114,AN vol. V inter alia).Sanskrit sources:the Mahāvastu, the Vimalakīrti Nideśa, and the Suvarnaprabhāṣa SūtraTibetan sources (for example): Tzong Kha Pa's 'Great Exposition of the Stages of the Path; Gampopa's 'Jewel Ornament of Liberation; Ngorchen Konchog Lhundrub's 'The Beautiful Ornament of the Triple Vision'; Paltrul Rinpoche's 'The Words of my Perfect Teacher'.
  35. ^ Coleman, James William (2001), The New Buddhism: The Western Transformation of an Ancient Tradition, Oxford University Press, p. 117, ISBN 0-19-515241-7
  36. ^ Partridge, Christopher (2004), Encyclopedia of New Religions, Lion, p. 193, ISBN 0-7459-5073-6
  37. ^ Coleman, James William (2001), The New Buddhism: The Western Transformation of an Ancient Tradition, Oxford University Press, p. 116, ISBN 0-19-515241-7
  38. ^ Coleman, James William (2001), The New Buddhism: The Western Transformation of an Ancient Tradition, Oxford University Press, p. 81, ISBN 0-19-515241-7
  39. ^ Barrett, D V (2001), The New Believers: Sects, 'Cults' and Alternative Religions, Cassell, p. 307, ISBN 0-304-355925
  40. ^ Clarke, Peter (2005), Encyclopedia of New Religious Movements, London: Routledge, p. 198, ISBN 0-415-26707-2
  41. ^ Clarke, Peter (2005), Encyclopedia of New Religious Movements, London: Routledge, p. 198, ISBN 0-415-26707-2
  42. ^ Vishvapani, Dharmachari, Perceptions of the FWBO in British Buddhism, Western Buddhist Review {{citation}}: Text "Vol 13" ignored (help)
  43. ^ Barrett, D V (2001), The New Believers: Sects, 'Cults' and Alternative Religions, Cassell, p. 309-310, ISBN 0-304-355925
  44. ^ Sangharakshita’s Teachings in Theory and Practice, fwbo
  45. ^ Barrett, D V (2001), The New Believers: Sects, 'Cults' and Alternative Religions, Cassell, p. 310, ISBN 0-304-355925
  46. ^ "The FWBO Files: The dark side of the FWBO", Links Page
  47. ^ Barrett, D V (2001), The New Believers: Sects, 'Cults' and Alternative Religions, Cassell, p. 309, ISBN 0-304-355925
  48. ^ "The Friends of the Western Buddhist Order: The FWBO files - a response", Links Page
  49. ^ "Network of Buddhist Organisations: The NBO Files", Links Page
  50. ^ Buddha and the bottle, The Times, 11 August 2007
  51. ^ "Mind Over Other Matters", Links Page, The Guardian, 8 May 2004 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  52. ^ "Right Frame of Mind on Run In", Links Page, The Guardian, 22 January 2005 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  53. ^ "Meditation directory", Links Page, The Observer, 6 July 2008 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  54. ^ "Buddhism", Links Page, The Guardian {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  55. ^ For example, James William Coleman and D V Barrett write about the FWBO as a Buddhist movement
  56. ^ Coleman, James William (2001), The New Buddhism: The Western Transformation of an Ancient Tradition, Oxford University Press, p. 81, ISBN 0-19-515241-7
  57. ^ Sangharakshita (1985). Travel Letters. Windhorse Publications. p. 173. ISBN 0 904766 17 9. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  58. ^ Bell, Sandra (1997), "Review of, 'Extending the Hand of Fellowship'", Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 4, ISSN 1076-9005
  59. ^ "Vessantara: My first meeting with Sangharakshita", Links Page, Undated {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  60. ^ Coleman, James William (2001), The New Buddhism: The Western Transformation of an Ancient Tradition, Oxford University Press, p. 163, ISBN 0-19-515241-7
  61. ^ The Guardian article on the FWBO
  62. ^ Rawlinson, A (1997), The Book of Enlightened Masters, Chicago: Open Court, p. 506, ISBN 0-8126-9310-8
  63. ^ The Guardian article on the FWBO
  64. ^ Barrett, D V (2001), The New Believers: Sects, 'Cults' and Alternative Religions, Cassell, p. 309, ISBN 0-304-355925
  65. ^ http://www.ex-cult.org/fwbo/ShabCol2.htm#Thepromotion
  66. ^ http://fwbo-files.com/yashomitra.htm
  67. ^ Coleman, James William (2001), The New Buddhism: The Western Transformation of an Ancient Tradition, Oxford University Press, p. 144, ISBN 0-19-515241-7
  68. ^ Barrett, D V (2001), The New Believers: Sects, 'Cults' and Alternative Religions, Cassell, p. 309, ISBN 0-304-355925
  69. ^ Coleman, James William (2001), The New Buddhism: The Western Transformation of an Ancient Tradition, Oxford University Press, p. 144, ISBN 0-19-515241-7
  70. ^ Rawlinson, A (1997), The Book of Enlightened Masters, Chicago: Open Court, p. 503, ISBN 0-8126-9310-8
  71. ^ Barrett, D V (2001), The New Believers: Sects, 'Cults' and Alternative Religions, Cassell, p. 309, ISBN 0-304-355925

External links

FWBO sites

General

India

United Kingdom

North America

Australasia

France

Germany

Outside views of the FWBO

Critical views of the FWBO

  • FWBO Files - Published by Verdex, a former FWBO member in Germany.
  • ex-FWBO - Part of ex-cult Resource Centre.
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