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Income and fertility is the association between monetary gain on one hand, and the tendency to produce offspring on the other. There is generally an inverse correlation between income and the total fertility rate within and between nations.^[3]^[4] The higher the degree of education and GDP per capita of a human population, subpopulation or social stratum, the fewer children are born in any developed country.^[5] In a 1974 United Nations population conference in Bucharest, Karan Singh, a former minister of population in India, illustrated this trend by stating "Development is the best contraceptive."^[6] In 2015, this thesis was supported by Vogl, T.S., who concluded that increasing the cumulative educational attainment of a generation of parents was by far the most important predictor of the inverse correlation between income and fertility based on a sample of 48 developing countries.^[7]

Generally a developed country has a lower fertility rate while a less economically developed country has a higher fertility rate. For example the total fertility rate for Japan, a developed country with per capita GDP of US$32,600 in 2009, was 1.22 children born per woman. But total fertility rate in Ethiopia, with a per capita GDP of $900 in 2009, was 6.17 children born per woman.^[8]

Demographic-economic paradox

Herwig Birg has called the inverse relationship between income and fertility a "demo-economic paradox". Evolutionary biology predicts that more successful individuals (and by analogy countries) should seek to develop optimum conditions for their life and reproduction. However, in the last half of the 20th century it has become clear that the economic success of developed countries is being counterbalanced by a demographic failure, a sub-replacement fertility that may prove destructive for their future economies and societies.^[9]

Causes and related factors

It is hypothesized that the observed trend in many countries of having fewer children has come about as a response to increased life expectancy, reduced child mortality, improved female literacy and independence, and urbanization that all result from increased GDP per capita,^[10] consistent with the demographic transition model. The increase in GDP in Eastern Europe after 1990 has been correlated with childbearing postponement and a sharp decline in fertility.^[11]

In developed countries where birth control is the norm, increased income is likewise associated with decreased fertility. Theories behind this include:

People earning more have a higher opportunity cost if they focus on childbirth and parenting rather than their continued career.^[11]
Women who can economically sustain themselves have less incentive to become married.^[11]
Higher-income parents value quality over quantity and so spend their resources on fewer children.^[11]^[12]

From the 1970s to the late 2000s, parental spending increased. At the same time, investment in male and female children changed substantially: in the early 1970s, households with only female children spent significantly less than parents in households with only male children, but by the 1990s spending had equalized, and by the late 2000s girls gained an advantage. In addition, before the 1990s, parents spent the most on children in their teens. After the 1990s, however, the highest spending was on children under age 6 and in their mid-20s.^[13] The motives for the increase in parental investment in children, both in terms of financial and time investment are diverse. Anne H. Gauthier and Petra W. de Jong evidence that for middle-income parents in Canada and the US these motives are the goal of providing children with human and social capital to improve their future labor market prospects, the pressures on parents to conform to new societal standards of good and intensive parenting, and the experience of parenting as part of self-development.^[14] Philip H. Brown analyzed parenting patterns in rural China and found that more educated parents make greater educational investments in both goods and time with the objective of higher returns to education for children.^[15]

Religion sometimes modifies the effect; higher income is associated with slightly increased fertility among Catholic couples but is associated with slightly decreased fertility among Protestant couples.^[16] Scholars also find a link between the European Marriage Pattern, which is marked by comparatively late marriage and consequently decreased fertility, and the economic growth.^[17] This demographic pattern is considered to influence the stock of human capital and thus to contribute to Western Europe's development advantage.^[18]

Ansley Coale's Three Preconditions for Decline in Fertility asserts that increases in a society's income may increase its fertility, but only if three preconditions are met, summarized as "ready, willing and able". People will respond to economic and social opportunities that make it advantageous to limit fertility, considering the economic and psychosocial costs such as the cost of birth control or abortions.^[19]

The review of the application of the traditional micro-economic models to the analysis of fertility decisions shows that, from economic point of view, children either are considered to yield utility directly, or are not desired for themselves, but are by-products of sexual activity or investment goods.^[20]

Consequences

Demographic transition#cite note-DemenyAndMcNicoll-1

Across countries there is a strong negative correlation between gross domestic product and fertility, and ultimately it is proven that a strong negative correlation exists between household income and fertility.

A reduction in fertility can lead to an aging population, which can lead to a variety of problems. See for example the demographics of Japan.

Some scholars have observed a dramatic increase in the proportion of young adults living with their parents in Mediterranean Europe.^[21] This is a worrisome trend, since this shift in the timing of adulthood could seriously affect the labor supply of young people, overall fertility rates, and European pay-as-you-go pension systems.^[21] This fact indicates that declining fertility rates in advanced economies may tend to be self-reinforcing and further exacerbate the situation.

A related concern is that high birth rates tend to place a greater burden of child rearing and education on populations already struggling with poverty. Consequently, inequality lowers average education and hampers economic growth.^[22] Also, in countries with a high burden of this kind, a reduction in fertility can hamper economic growth as well as the other way around.^[23] Richer countries have a lower fertility rate than poorer ones, and high income families have fewer kids than low-income ones.^[24]

Contrary findings

Every country could differ in their respective relationship between income and fertility. Some countries show that income and fertility are directly related but other countries show a directly inverse relationship.^[25]

A United Nations report in 2002 came to the conclusion that sharp declines in fertility rates in India, Nigeria, and Mexico occurred despite low levels of economic development.^[26]

Vogl, T.S. provided the evidence that associations between income and fertility or between sibship size and education, that used to be positive in developing countries in the 20th century, recently became negative: first in Latin America, then in Asia, and finally in Africa.^[7] This is mainly explained by increased education levels.

Fertility declines have been seen during economic recessions. This phenomenon is seen as a result of pregnancy postponement, especially of first births. But this effect can be short-term and largely compensated for during later times of economic prosperity.^[11]

Increased unemployment is generally associated with lower fertility.^[11] Nonetheless, in the years after the revolutions of 1989 in Russia, people who were more affected by labour market crises seemed to have a higher probability of having another child than those who were less affected.^[27] A study in France came to the result that employment instability has a strong and persistent negative effect on the final number of children for both men and women and contributes to fertility postponement for men. It also came to the result that employment instability has a negative influence on fertility among those with more egalitarian views about the division of labor but still a positive influence for women with more traditional views.^[28] This can be explained by the fact that countries with more traditional views of women's roles generally tend to have lower female labor force participation and higher fertility rates.^[29]

Another possible factor of lower fertility rates is culture. Numerous studies show that culture and ethnicity play a quantitatively significant role in explaining variation in women's work and fertility outcomes.^[30]^[31]^[32]^[33] Simultaneously, culture has a causal effect on economic development.^[34]^[35] Such cultural traits as having trust in other people, appreciating the virtue of having tolerance and respect for others in children, feeling in control of one's life, and appreciating obedience in one's own children appear to be favorable to economic development.^[36] Thus, the relationship between income and fertility may be not direct, but determined by a common root – cultural characteristics.

Mass culture can also influence people's attitudes toward having large families. For instance, in Brazil, where soap operas depict small families, women living in areas covered by the largest soap opera producer have significantly lower fertility rates.^[37] This effect is strongest among women of low socioeconomic status and in the central and late phases of fertility.

Two recent studies in the United States show, that in some circumstances, families whose income has increased will have more children.^[38] This may be explained by Fertility J-curve.

Fertility J-curve

Some scholars have recently questioned the assumption that economic development and fertility are correlated in a simple negative manner. A study published in Nature in 2009 found that when using the Human Development Index instead of the GDP as measure for economic development, fertility follows a J-shaped curve: with rising economic development, fertility rates indeed do drop at first but then begin to rise again as the level of social and economic development increases while still remaining below the replacement rate.^[39]^[40]

In an article published in Nature, Myrskylä et al. pointed out that "unprecedented increases" in social and economic development in the 20th century had been accompanied by considerable declines in population growth rates and fertility. This negative association between human fertility and socio-economic development has been "one of the most solidly established and generally accepted empirical regularities in the social sciences".^[40] The researchers used cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses to examine the relationship between total fertility rate (TFR) and the human development index (HDI).

The main finding of the study was that, in highly developed countries with an HDI above 0.9, further development halts the declining fertility rates. This means that the previously negative development-fertility association is reversed; the graph becomes J-shaped. Myrskylä et al. contend that there has occurred "a fundamental change in the well-established negative relationship between fertility and development as the global population entered the twenty-first century".^[40]

Some researchers doubt J-shaped relationship fertility and socio-economic development (Luci and Thevenon, 2010;^[41] Furuoka, 2009). For example, Fumitaka Furuoka (2009) employed a piecewise regression analysis to examine the relationship between total fertility rate and human development index. However, he found no empirical evidence to support the proposition that advances in development are able to reverse declining fertility rates. More precisely, he found that in countries with a low human development index, higher levels of HDI tend to be associated with lower fertility rates. Likewise, in countries with a high human development index, higher levels of HDI are associated with lower fertility rates, although the relationship is weaker. Furuoka's findings support the "conventional wisdom" that higher development is consistently correlated with lower overall fertility.^[42]

An update of Myrskylä et al.'s work has also found that declines in national fertility between 2010 and 2018 mean that there is now no long-term association between very high levels of development and sustained fertility rebounds.^[43]

References

^ "Field Listing: Total Fertility Rate". The World Factbook. Archived from the original on 2013-08-11. Retrieved 2016-04-24.
^ "Country Comparison: GDP – Per Capita (PPP)". The World Factbook. Archived from the original on April 27, 2015. Retrieved 2016-04-24.
^ Wrong, Dennis H. (1958). "Trends in Class Fertility in Western Nations". Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science. 24 (2): 216–229. doi:10.2307/138769. ISSN 0315-4890. JSTOR 138769.
^ Simon, Julian L. (1969). "The effect of income on fertility". Population Studies. 23 (3): 327–341. doi:10.1080/00324728.1969.10405289. ISSN 0032-4728. PMID 22073952.
^ Vandenbroucke, Guillaume (December 13, 2016). "The Link between Fertility and Income". Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis (USA).
^ Weil, David N. (2004). Economic Growth. Addison-Wesley. p. 111. ISBN 978-0-201-68026-3.
^ ^a ^b Vogl, Tom S. (2015-07-20). "Differential Fertility, Human Capital, and Development". The Review of Economic Studies. 83 (1): 365–401. doi:10.1093/restud/rdv026. ISSN 0034-6527.
^ "Ethiopia" (PDF). A Country Status Report on Health and Poverty (In Two Volumes) the World Bank Group Africa Region Human Development & Ministry of Health, Ethiopia. II: Main Report. July 2005.
^ Birg, Herwig (October 18, 2000). "Demographic Ageing and Population Decline in 21st Century Germany – Consequences for the Systems of Social Insurance" (PDF). United Nations Dept of Social and Economic Affairs.
^ Montgomery, Keith, The demographic transition, University of Wisconsin-Marathon County, archived from the original on 18 October 2012
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Balbo, Nicoletta; Billari, Francesco C.; Mills, Melinda (2012). "Fertility in Advanced Societies: A Review of Research". European Journal of Population / Revue Européenne de Démographie. 29 (1): 1–38. doi:10.1007/s10680-012-9277-y. PMC 3576563. PMID 23440941.
^ Galor, Oded (2020). "The journey of humanity: Roots of inequality in the wealth of nations". Economics and Business Review. 6 (20) (2): 7–18. doi:10.18559/ebr.2020.2.2. ISSN 2392-1641. S2CID 220370572.
^ Kornrich, Sabino; Furstenberg, Frank (2012-09-18). "Investing in Children: Changes in Parental Spending on Children, 1972–2007". Demography. 50 (1): 1–23. doi:10.1007/s13524-012-0146-4. ISSN 0070-3370. PMID 22987208. S2CID 207472071.
^ Gauthier, Anne H.; de Jong, Petra W. (2021-02-17). "Costly children: the motivations for parental investment in children in a low fertility context". Genus. 77 (1): 6. doi:10.1186/s41118-020-00111-5. ISSN 2035-5556. PMC 7889673. PMID 33678812.
^ Brown, Philip (2006). "Parental Education and Investment in Children's Human Capital in Rural China". Economic Development and Cultural Change. 54 (4): 759–789. doi:10.1086/503582. ISSN 0013-0079. S2CID 13132149.
^ Charles F. Westoff; R. G. Potter (2015). Third Child: A Study in the Prediction of Fertility. Princeton University Press. ISBN 9781400876426. Page 238
^ Carmichael, Sarah G.; Pleijt, Alexandra de; Zanden, Jan Luiten van; Moor, Tine De (2016). "The European Marriage Pattern and Its Measurement". The Journal of Economic History. 76 (1): 196–204. doi:10.1017/S0022050716000474. ISSN 0022-0507. S2CID 155781644.
^ Foreman-Peck, James (2011-04-01). "The Western European marriage pattern and economic development". Explorations in Economic History. 48 (2): 292–309. doi:10.1016/j.eeh.2011.01.002. ISSN 0014-4983.
^ van de Kaa, Dirk J. (2004). "["Ready, Willing, and Able": Ansley J. Coale, 1917–2002]". The Journal of Interdisciplinary History. 34 (3): 509–511. JSTOR 3657089.
^ Cochrane, Susan H. (1975). "Children as By-products, Investment Goods and Consumer Goods: A Review of Some Micro-economic Models of Fertility". Population Studies. 29 (3): 373–390. doi:10.2307/2173934. JSTOR 2173934. PMID 22077775.
^ ^a ^b Giuliano, Paola (2007-09-01). "Living Arrangements in Western Europe: Does Cultural Origin Matter?". Journal of the European Economic Association. 5 (5): 927–952. doi:10.1162/jeea.2007.5.5.927. ISSN 1542-4766.
^ de la Croix, David; Doepcke, Matthias (2003). "Inequality and growth: why differential fertility matters" (PDF). American Economic Review. 4: 1091–1113.
^ UNFPA: Population and poverty. Achieving equity, equality and sustainability. Population and development series no. 8, 2003.[1] Archived 2013-04-21 at the Wayback Machine
^ Stanford, Joseph B.; Smith, KEN R. (2013). "Marital Fertility and Income: Moderating Effects of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints Religion in Utah". Journal of Biosocial Science. 45 (2): 239–48. doi:10.1017/S002193201200065X. PMID 23069479. S2CID 5859087.
^ Hutzler, S.; Sommer, C.; Richmond, P. (2016). "On the relationship between income, fertility rates and the state of democracy in society" (PDF). Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and Its Applications. 452: 9–18. Bibcode:2016PhyA..452....9H. doi:10.1016/j.physa.2016.02.011. hdl:2262/76097.
^ Maria E. Cosio-Zavala (2002). "Examining Changes in the Status of Women And Gender as Predictors Of Fertility Change Issues in Intermediate-Fertility Countries
Part of: Completing the Fertility Transition" (PDF). United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division.
^ Kohler H.P.; Kohler, I. (2002). "Fertility Decline in Russia in the Early and Mid 1990s: The Role of Economic Uncertainty and Labour Market Crises" (PDF). European Journal of Population. 18 (3): 233–262. doi:10.1023/A:1019701812709. S2CID 55571696.
^ Daniel Ciganda (2015). "Unstable work histories and fertility in France: An adaptation of sequence complexity measures to employment trajectories". Demographic Research.
^ Fernández, Raquel (2011), Does Culture Matter?, Handbook of Social Economics, vol. 1, Elsevier, pp. 481–510, doi:10.1016/b978-0-444-53187-2.00011-5, ISBN 9780444537133, S2CID 13955057, retrieved 2023-05-28
^ Antecol, Heather (2000). "An examination of cross-country differences in the gender gap in labor force participation rates". Labour Economics. 7 (4): 409–426. doi:10.1016/s0927-5371(00)00007-5. ISSN 0927-5371.
^ Fernández, Raquel; Fogli, Alessandra (2009-01-01). "Culture: An Empirical Investigation of Beliefs, Work, and Fertility". American Economic Journal: Macroeconomics. 1 (1): 146–177. doi:10.1257/mac.1.1.146. ISSN 1945-7707.
^ Fernandez, Raquel (2007). "Culture as Learning: The Evolution of Female Labor Force Participation over a Century". CEPR Discussion Paper No. DP6451. Cambridge, MA. doi:10.3386/w13373.
^ Fernández, Raquel; Fogli, Alessandra (2006-05-01). "Fertility: The Role of Culture and Family Experience". Journal of the European Economic Association. 4 (2–3): 552–561. doi:10.1162/jeea.2006.4.2-3.552. ISSN 1542-4766. S2CID 2255680.
^ Hall, Robert; Jones, Charles (1999). "Why Do Some Countries Produce So Much More Output per Worker than Others?". Quarterly Journal of Economics. Cambridge, MA. doi:10.3386/w6564.
^ Acemoglu, Daron; Johnson, Simon; Robinson, James (2002). "The Rise of Europe: Atlantic Trade, Institutional Change and Economic Growth". NBER Working Paper No. 9378. Cambridge, MA. doi:10.3386/w9378.
^ Tabellini, Guido (2010). "Culture and Institutions: Economic Development in the Regions of Europe". Journal of the European Economic Association. 8 (4): 677–716. doi:10.1111/j.1542-4774.2010.tb00537.x. ISSN 1542-4766. S2CID 8126263.
^ Ferrara, Eliana La; Chong, Alberto; Duryea, Suzanne (2012-10-01). "Soap Operas and Fertility: Evidence from Brazil". American Economic Journal: Applied Economics. 4 (4): 1–31. doi:10.1257/app.4.4.1. hdl:10419/51429. ISSN 1945-7782.
^ "How Income Affects Fertility". Institute for Family Studies. Retrieved 2018-03-28.
^ "The best of all possible worlds? A link between wealth and breeding". The Economist. August 6, 2009.
^ ^a ^b ^c Myrskylä, Mikko; Kohler, Hans-Peter; Billari, Francesco C. (2009). "Advances in development reverse fertility declines". Nature. 460 (7256): 741–3. Bibcode:2009Natur.460..741M. doi:10.1038/nature08230. PMID 19661915. S2CID 4381880.
^ Luci, A; Thvenon, O (2010). "Does economic development drive the fertility rebound in OECD countries?". Paper Presented in the European Population Conference 2010 (EPC2010), Vienna, Austria, September 1–4, 2010.
^ Fumitaka Furuoka (2009). "Looking for a J-shaped development-fertility relationship: Do advances in development really reverse fertility declines?". Economics Bulletin. 29: 3067–3074.
^ Gaddy, Hampton Gray (2021-01-20). "A decade of TFR declines suggests no relationship between development and sub-replacement fertility rebounds". Demographic Research. 44: 125–142. doi:10.4054/DemRes.2021.44.5. ISSN 1435-9871.

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-[[File:TFR vs PPP 2015.png|thumb|400px|Graph of [[Total Fertility Rate]] vs. [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|GDP (PPP) per capita of the corresponding country]], 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2127.html|title=Field Listing: Total Fertility Rate|website=[[The World Factbook]]|access-date=2016-04-24|archive-date=2013-08-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130811191145/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2127.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
+[[File:TFR vs PPP 2015.png|thumb|400px|Graph of [[total fertility rate]] vs. [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|GDP (PPP) per capita of the corresponding country]], 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2127.html|title=Field Listing: Total Fertility Rate|website=[[The World Factbook]]|access-date=2016-04-24|archive-date=2013-08-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130811191145/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2127.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
-<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/resources/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2004rank.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150427163053/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/resources/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2004rank.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=April 27, 2015|title=Country Comparison: GDP - Per Capita (PPP)|website=[[The World Factbook]]|access-date=2016-04-24}}</ref>]]
+<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/resources/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2004rank.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150427163053/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/resources/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2004rank.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=April 27, 2015|title=Country Comparison: GDP – Per Capita (PPP)|website=[[The World Factbook]]|access-date=2016-04-24}}</ref>]]
-'''[[Income]] and [[fertility]]''' is the [[Association (statistics)|association]] between monetary gain on one hand, and the tendency to produce offspring on the other. There is generally an inverse [[correlation]] between income and the [[fertility rate|total fertility rate]] within and between nations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wrong |first=Dennis H. |date=1958 |title=Trends in Class Fertility in Western Nations |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/138769 |journal=Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=216–229 |doi=10.2307/138769 |jstor=138769 |issn=0315-4890}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Simon |first=Julian L. |date=1969 |title=The effect of income on fertility |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00324728.1969.10405289 |journal=Population Studies |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=327–341 |doi=10.1080/00324728.1969.10405289 |pmid=22073952 |issn=0032-4728}}</ref> The higher the degree of [[education]] and [[gross domestic product|GDP]] per capita of a human [[population]], subpopulation or [[social stratum]], the fewer children are born in any developed country.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.stlouisfed.org/on-the-economy/2016/december/link-fertility-income|title=The Link between Fertility and Income|last=Vandenbroucke|first=Guillaume|date=December 13, 2016|website=Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis (USA)}}</ref> In a 1974 United Nations population conference in Bucharest, [[Karan Singh]], a former minister of population in India, illustrated this trend by stating "Development is the best [[contraceptive]]."<ref>{{cite book |first=David N. |last=Weil |title=Economic Growth |publisher=[[Addison-Wesley]] |year=2004 |page=111 |isbn=978-0-201-68026-3}}</ref> In 2015, this thesis was supported by Vogl, T.S., who concluded that increasing the cumulative educational attainment of a generation of parents was by far the most important predictor of the inverse correlation between income and fertility based on a sample of 48 developing countries.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Vogl |first=Tom S. |date=2015-07-20 |title=Differential Fertility, Human Capital, and Development |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/restud/rdv026 |journal=The Review of Economic Studies |volume=83 |issue=1 |pages=365–401 |doi=10.1093/restud/rdv026 |issn=0034-6527}}</ref>
+'''Income and [[fertility]]''' is the association between monetary gain on one hand, and the tendency to produce offspring on the other. There is generally an inverse correlation between income and the [[fertility rate|total fertility rate]] within and between nations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wrong |first=Dennis H. |date=1958 |title=Trends in Class Fertility in Western Nations |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/138769 |journal=Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=216–229 |doi=10.2307/138769 |jstor=138769 |issn=0315-4890}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Simon |first=Julian L. |date=1969 |title=The effect of income on fertility |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00324728.1969.10405289 |journal=Population Studies |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=327–341 |doi=10.1080/00324728.1969.10405289 |pmid=22073952 |issn=0032-4728}}</ref> The higher the degree of education and GDP per capita of a human population, subpopulation or [[social stratum]], the fewer children are born in any developed country.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.stlouisfed.org/on-the-economy/2016/december/link-fertility-income|title=The Link between Fertility and Income|last=Vandenbroucke|first=Guillaume|date=December 13, 2016|website=Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis (USA)}}</ref> In a 1974 United Nations population conference in Bucharest, [[Karan Singh]], a former minister of population in India, illustrated this trend by stating "Development is the best [[contraceptive]]."<ref>{{cite book |first=David N. |last=Weil |title=Economic Growth |publisher=[[Addison-Wesley]] |year=2004 |page=111 |isbn=978-0-201-68026-3}}</ref> In 2015, this thesis was supported by Vogl, T.S., who concluded that increasing the cumulative educational attainment of a generation of parents was by far the most important predictor of the inverse correlation between income and fertility based on a sample of 48 developing countries.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Vogl |first=Tom S. |date=2015-07-20 |title=Differential Fertility, Human Capital, and Development |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/restud/rdv026 |journal=The Review of Economic Studies |volume=83 |issue=1 |pages=365–401 |doi=10.1093/restud/rdv026 |issn=0034-6527}}</ref>
-Generally, a developed country has a lower fertility rate while a less economically developed country has a higher fertility rate. For example, the total fertility rate for Japan, a more developed country, with per capita GDP of US$32,600 in 2009, was 1.22 children born per woman. But total fertility rate in Ethiopia, with a per capita GDP of $900 in 2009, was 6.17 children born per woman.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=July 2005 |title=Ethiopia |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTAFRICA/Resources/no_81.pdf |journal=A Country Status Report on Health and Poverty (In Two Volumes) the World Bank Group Africa Region Human Development & Ministry of Health, Ethiopia |volume=II: Main Report}}</ref>
+Generally a developed country has a lower fertility rate while a less economically developed country has a higher fertility rate. For example the total fertility rate for Japan, a developed country with per capita GDP of US$32,600 in 2009, was 1.22 children born per woman. But total fertility rate in Ethiopia, with a per capita GDP of $900 in 2009, was 6.17 children born per woman.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=July 2005 |title=Ethiopia |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTAFRICA/Resources/no_81.pdf |journal=A Country Status Report on Health and Poverty (In Two Volumes) the World Bank Group Africa Region Human Development & Ministry of Health, Ethiopia |volume=II: Main Report}}</ref>
 == Demographic-economic paradox ==
-Herwig Birg has called the inverse relationship between income and fertility a "demo-economic [[paradox]]". [[Evolutionary biology]] predicts that more successful individuals (and by analogy countries) should seek to develop optimum conditions for their life and reproduction. However, in the last half of the 20th century it has become clear that the economic success of developed countries is being counterbalanced by a [[Demography|demographic]] failure, a [[sub-replacement fertility]] that may prove destructive for their future economies and societies.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Birg|first=Herwig|date=October 18, 2000|title=Demographic Ageing and Population Decline in 21st Century Germany - Consequences for the Systems of Social Insurance|url=https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/events/pdf/expert/2/birg.pdf|website=United Nations Dept of Social and Economic Affairs.}}</ref>
+Herwig Birg has called the inverse relationship between income and fertility a "demo-economic [[paradox]]". [[Evolutionary biology]] predicts that more successful individuals (and by analogy countries) should seek to develop optimum conditions for their life and reproduction. However, in the last half of the 20th century it has become clear that the economic success of developed countries is being counterbalanced by a [[Demography|demographic]] failure, a [[sub-replacement fertility]] that may prove destructive for their future economies and societies.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Birg|first=Herwig|date=October 18, 2000|title=Demographic Ageing and Population Decline in 21st Century Germany – Consequences for the Systems of Social Insurance|url=https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/events/pdf/expert/2/birg.pdf|website=United Nations Dept of Social and Economic Affairs.}}</ref>
 ==Causes and related factors==
 {{Further|Fertility factor (demography)}}
-It is hypothesized that the observed trend in many countries of having fewer children has come about as a response to increased [[life expectancy]], reduced [[child mortality]], improved female literacy and independence, and [[urbanization]] that all result from increased GDP per capita,<ref name="demographic transition">{{citation|url=http://www.uwmc.uwc.edu/geography/Demotrans/demtran.htm|title=The demographic transition|first=Keith|last=Montgomery|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018050952/http://www.uwmc.uwc.edu/geography/demotrans/demtran.htm|archive-date=18 October 2012|publisher=University of Wisconsin-Marathon County}}</ref> consistent with the [[demographic transition|demographic transition model]]. The increase in GDP in Eastern Europe after 1990 has been correlated with childbearing postponement and a sharp decline in fertility.<ref name="balbo2013" />
+It is hypothesized that the observed trend in many countries of having fewer children has come about as a response to increased [[life expectancy]], reduced [[child mortality]], improved female literacy and independence, and urbanization that all result from increased GDP per capita,<ref name="demographic transition">{{citation|url=http://www.uwmc.uwc.edu/geography/Demotrans/demtran.htm|title=The demographic transition|first=Keith|last=Montgomery|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018050952/http://www.uwmc.uwc.edu/geography/demotrans/demtran.htm|archive-date=18 October 2012|publisher=University of Wisconsin-Marathon County}}</ref> consistent with the [[demographic transition|demographic transition model]]. The increase in GDP in Eastern Europe after 1990 has been correlated with childbearing postponement and a sharp decline in fertility.<ref name="balbo2013" />
 In developed countries where birth control is the norm, increased income is likewise associated with decreased fertility. Theories behind this include:
@@ Line 19: / Line 19: @@
 *Higher-income parents value quality over quantity and so spend their resources on fewer children.<ref name="balbo2013" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Galor |first=Oded |date=2020 |title=The journey of humanity: Roots of inequality in the wealth of nations |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.18559/ebr.2020.2.2 |journal=Economics and Business Review |volume=6 (20) |issue=2 |pages=7–18 |doi=10.18559/ebr.2020.2.2 |s2cid=220370572 |issn=2392-1641}}</ref>
-From the 1970s to the late 2000s, parental spending increased. At the same time, [[investment]] in male and female children changed substantially: in the early 1970s, [[household]]s with only female children spent significantly less than parents in households with only male children, but by the 1990s spending had equalized, and by the late 2000s girls gained an advantage. In addition, before the 1990s, parents spent the most on children in their teens. After the 1990s, however, the highest spending was on children under age 6 and in their mid-20s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kornrich |first1=Sabino |last2=Furstenberg |first2=Frank |date=2012-09-18 |title=Investing in Children: Changes in Parental Spending on Children, 1972–2007 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13524-012-0146-4 |journal=Demography |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=1–23 |doi=10.1007/s13524-012-0146-4 |pmid=22987208 |s2cid=207472071 |issn=0070-3370}}</ref> The motives for the increase in parental investment in children, both in terms of financial and time investment are diverse. Anne H. Gauthier and Petra W. de Jong evidence that for middle-income parents in [[Canada]] and the [[United States|USA]] these motives are the goal of providing children with [[Human capital|human]] and [[social capital]] to improve their future labor market prospects, the pressures on parents to conform to new societal standards of good and intensive parenting, and the experience of parenting as part of self-development.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gauthier |first1=Anne H. |last2=de Jong |first2=Petra W. |date=2021-02-17 |title=Costly children: the motivations for parental investment in children in a low fertility context |journal=Genus |volume=77 |issue=1 |page=6 |doi=10.1186/s41118-020-00111-5 |pmid=33678812 |pmc=7889673 |issn=2035-5556 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Philip H. Brown analyzed parenting patterns in rural [[China]] and found that more educated parents make greater educational investments in both [[goods]] and time with the objective of higher [[Return on investment|returns]] to education for children.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brown |first=Philip |date=2006 |title=Parental Education and Investment in Children's Human Capital in Rural China |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/503582 |journal=Economic Development and Cultural Change |volume=54 |issue=4 |pages=759–789 |doi=10.1086/503582 |s2cid=13132149 |issn=0013-0079}}</ref>
+From the 1970s to the late 2000s, parental spending increased. At the same time, investment in male and female children changed substantially: in the early 1970s, households with only female children spent significantly less than parents in households with only male children, but by the 1990s spending had equalized, and by the late 2000s girls gained an advantage. In addition, before the 1990s, parents spent the most on children in their teens. After the 1990s, however, the highest spending was on children under age 6 and in their mid-20s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kornrich |first1=Sabino |last2=Furstenberg |first2=Frank |date=2012-09-18 |title=Investing in Children: Changes in Parental Spending on Children, 1972–2007 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13524-012-0146-4 |journal=Demography |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=1–23 |doi=10.1007/s13524-012-0146-4 |pmid=22987208 |s2cid=207472071 |issn=0070-3370}}</ref> The motives for the increase in parental investment in children, both in terms of financial and time investment are diverse. Anne H. Gauthier and Petra W. de Jong evidence that for middle-income parents in Canada and the US these motives are the goal of providing children with [[Human capital|human]] and [[social capital]] to improve their future labor market prospects, the pressures on parents to conform to new societal standards of good and intensive parenting, and the experience of parenting as part of self-development.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gauthier |first1=Anne H. |last2=de Jong |first2=Petra W. |date=2021-02-17 |title=Costly children: the motivations for parental investment in children in a low fertility context |journal=Genus |volume=77 |issue=1 |page=6 |doi=10.1186/s41118-020-00111-5 |pmid=33678812 |pmc=7889673 |issn=2035-5556 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Philip H. Brown analyzed parenting patterns in rural China and found that more educated parents make greater educational investments in both [[goods]] and time with the objective of higher [[Return on investment|returns]] to education for children.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brown |first=Philip |date=2006 |title=Parental Education and Investment in Children's Human Capital in Rural China |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/503582 |journal=Economic Development and Cultural Change |volume=54 |issue=4 |pages=759–789 |doi=10.1086/503582 |s2cid=13132149 |issn=0013-0079}}</ref>
-Religion sometimes modifies the effect; higher income is associated with slightly increased fertility among [[Catholic]] couples but is associated with slightly decreased fertility among [[Protestant]] couples.<ref name="Westoff">{{cite book|title=Third Child: A Study in the Prediction of Fertility|author1=Charles F. Westoff |author2=R. G. Potter |publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2015|isbn=9781400876426}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=2SDWCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA238 Page 238]</ref> [[Scholar]]s also find a link between the [[Western European marriage pattern|European Marriage Pattern]], which is marked by comparatively late marriage and consequently decreased [[fertility]], and the [[economic growth]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Carmichael |first1=Sarah G. |last2=Pleijt |first2=Alexandra de |last3=Zanden |first3=Jan Luiten van |last4=Moor |first4=Tine De |date=2016 |title=The European Marriage Pattern and Its Measurement |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-economic-history/article/abs/european-marriage-pattern-and-its-measurement/680FE81489BE35A84AFC9568A68A27A8 |journal=The Journal of Economic History |language=en |volume=76 |issue=1 |pages=196–204 |doi=10.1017/S0022050716000474 |s2cid=155781644 |issn=0022-0507}}</ref> This demographic pattern is considered to influence the stock of [[human capital]] and thus to contribute to [[Western Europe]]'s development advantage.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Foreman-Peck |first=James |date=2011-04-01 |title=The Western European marriage pattern and economic development |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0014498311000039 |journal=Explorations in Economic History |language=en |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=292–309 |doi=10.1016/j.eeh.2011.01.002 |issn=0014-4983}}</ref>
+Religion sometimes modifies the effect; higher income is associated with slightly increased fertility among [[Catholic]] couples but is associated with slightly decreased fertility among [[Protestant]] couples.<ref name="Westoff">{{cite book|title=Third Child: A Study in the Prediction of Fertility|author1=Charles F. Westoff |author2=R. G. Potter |publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2015|isbn=9781400876426}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=2SDWCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA238 Page 238]</ref> Scholars also find a link between the [[Western European marriage pattern|European Marriage Pattern]], which is marked by comparatively late marriage and consequently decreased [[fertility]], and the economic growth.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Carmichael |first1=Sarah G. |last2=Pleijt |first2=Alexandra de |last3=Zanden |first3=Jan Luiten van |last4=Moor |first4=Tine De |date=2016 |title=The European Marriage Pattern and Its Measurement |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-economic-history/article/abs/european-marriage-pattern-and-its-measurement/680FE81489BE35A84AFC9568A68A27A8 |journal=The Journal of Economic History |language=en |volume=76 |issue=1 |pages=196–204 |doi=10.1017/S0022050716000474 |s2cid=155781644 |issn=0022-0507}}</ref> This demographic pattern is considered to influence the stock of [[human capital]] and thus to contribute to Western Europe's development advantage.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Foreman-Peck |first=James |date=2011-04-01 |title=The Western European marriage pattern and economic development |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0014498311000039 |journal=Explorations in Economic History |language=en |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=292–309 |doi=10.1016/j.eeh.2011.01.002 |issn=0014-4983}}</ref>
-[[Ansley J. Coale|Ansley Coale]]'s ''Three Preconditions for Decline in Fertility'' asserts that increases in a society's income may increase its fertility, but only if three preconditions are met, summarized as "ready, willing and able". People will respond to economic and social opportunities that make it advantageous to limit fertility, considering the economic and psychosocial costs such as the cost of [[birth control]] or [[Abortion|abortions.]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=van de Kaa |first=Dirk J. |author-link=Dick van de Kaa |date=2004 |title=["Ready, Willing, and Able": Ansley J. Coale, 1917-2002] |journal=The Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=509–511 |jstor=3657089}}</ref>
+[[Ansley J. Coale|Ansley Coale]]'s ''Three Preconditions for Decline in Fertility'' asserts that increases in a society's income may increase its fertility, but only if three preconditions are met, summarized as "ready, willing and able". People will respond to economic and social opportunities that make it advantageous to limit fertility, considering the economic and psychosocial costs such as the cost of [[birth control]] or [[abortion]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=van de Kaa |first=Dirk J. |author-link=Dick van de Kaa |date=2004 |title=["Ready, Willing, and Able": Ansley J. Coale, 1917–2002] |journal=The Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=509–511 |jstor=3657089}}</ref>
-The review of the application of the traditional [[Microeconomics|micro-economic]] models to the analysis of [[fertility]] decisions shows that, from economic point of view, children either are considered to yield [[utility]] directly, or are not desired for themselves, but are [[by-product]]s of sexual activity or [[investment]] goods.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cochrane |first=Susan H. |date=1975 |title=Children as By-products, Investment Goods and Consumer Goods: A Review of Some Micro-economic Models of Fertility |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2173934 |journal=Population Studies |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=373–390 |doi=10.2307/2173934|jstor=2173934 |pmid=22077775 }}</ref>
+The review of the application of the traditional [[Microeconomics|micro-economic]] models to the analysis of [[fertility]] decisions shows that, from economic point of view, children either are considered to yield [[utility]] directly, or are not desired for themselves, but are [[by-product]]s of sexual activity or investment goods.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cochrane |first=Susan H. |date=1975 |title=Children as By-products, Investment Goods and Consumer Goods: A Review of Some Micro-economic Models of Fertility |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2173934 |journal=Population Studies |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=373–390 |doi=10.2307/2173934|jstor=2173934 |pmid=22077775 }}</ref>
 ==Consequences==
@@ Line 31: / Line 31: @@
 [[File:Demographic-TransitionOWID.png|thumb|[[Demographic transition#cite note-DemenyAndMcNicoll-1]]]]
-Across countries, there is a strong negative correlation between [[gross domestic product]] and [[fertility]], and ultimately it is proven that a strong negative correlation exists between household income and fertility.
+Across countries there is a strong negative correlation between gross domestic product and [[fertility]], and ultimately it is proven that a strong negative correlation exists between household income and fertility.
 A reduction in fertility can lead to an aging population, which can lead to a variety of problems. See for example the [[demographics of Japan]].
@@ Line 37: / Line 37: @@
 Some scholars have observed a dramatic increase in the proportion of [[young adult]]s living with their parents in [[Southern Europe|Mediterranean Europe]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Giuliano |first=Paola |date=2007-09-01 |title=Living Arrangements in Western Europe: Does Cultural Origin Matter? |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/jeea.2007.5.5.927 |journal=Journal of the European Economic Association |volume=5 |issue=5 |pages=927–952 |doi=10.1162/jeea.2007.5.5.927 |issn=1542-4766}}</ref> This is a worrisome trend, since this shift in the timing of [[adult]]hood could seriously affect the [[Labour supply|labor supply]] of young people, overall [[Total fertility rate|fertility rates]], and European [[Pension|pay-as-you-go pension systems]].<ref name=":3" /> This fact indicates that declining fertility rates in advanced economies may tend to be self-reinforcing and further exacerbate the situation.
-A related concern is that high birth rates tend to place a greater burden of child rearing and education on populations already struggling with poverty. Consequently, [[Economic inequality|inequality]] lowers average education and hampers economic growth.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = de la Croix | first1 = David | last2 = Doepcke | first2 = Matthias | year = 2003 | title = Inequality and growth: why differential fertility matters | url = http://www.econ.ucla.edu/workingpapers/wp803.pdf | journal = [[American Economic Review]] | volume = 4 | pages = 1091–1113 }}</ref> Also, in countries with a high burden of this kind, a reduction in fertility can hamper [[economic growth]] as well as the other way around.<ref>UNFPA: Population and poverty. Achieving equity, equality and sustainability. ''Population and development'' series no. 8, 2003.[http://www.unfpa.org/upload/lib_pub_file/191_filename_PDS08.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130421014003/http://www.unfpa.org/upload/lib_pub_file/191_filename_PDS08.pdf|date=2013-04-21}}</ref> Richer countries have a lower fertility rate than poorer ones, and high income families have fewer kids than low-income ones.<ref>{{Cite journal |journal=Journal of Biosocial Science  |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=239–48|doi=10.1017/S002193201200065X|pmid=23069479|title=Marital Fertility and Income: Moderating Effects of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints Religion in Utah |year=2013 |last1=Stanford |first1=Joseph B. |last2=Smith |first2=KEN R. |s2cid=5859087 }}</ref>
+A related concern is that high birth rates tend to place a greater burden of child rearing and education on populations already struggling with poverty. Consequently, [[Economic inequality|inequality]] lowers average education and hampers economic growth.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = de la Croix | first1 = David | last2 = Doepcke | first2 = Matthias | year = 2003 | title = Inequality and growth: why differential fertility matters | url = http://www.econ.ucla.edu/workingpapers/wp803.pdf | journal = [[American Economic Review]] | volume = 4 | pages = 1091–1113 }}</ref> Also, in countries with a high burden of this kind, a reduction in fertility can hamper economic growth as well as the other way around.<ref>UNFPA: Population and poverty. Achieving equity, equality and sustainability. ''Population and development'' series no. 8, 2003.[http://www.unfpa.org/upload/lib_pub_file/191_filename_PDS08.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130421014003/http://www.unfpa.org/upload/lib_pub_file/191_filename_PDS08.pdf|date=2013-04-21}}</ref> Richer countries have a lower fertility rate than poorer ones, and high income families have fewer kids than low-income ones.<ref>{{Cite journal |journal=Journal of Biosocial Science  |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=239–48|doi=10.1017/S002193201200065X|pmid=23069479|title=Marital Fertility and Income: Moderating Effects of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints Religion in Utah |year=2013 |last1=Stanford |first1=Joseph B. |last2=Smith |first2=KEN R. |s2cid=5859087 }}</ref>
 ==Contrary findings==
 Every country could differ in their respective relationship between income and fertility. Some countries show that income and fertility are directly related but other countries show a directly inverse relationship.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hutzler |first1=S. |last2=Sommer |first2=C. |last3=Richmond |first3=P. |year=2016 |title=On the relationship between income, fertility rates and the state of democracy in society |url=http://www.tara.tcd.ie/bitstream/2262/76097/1/physica2016_proofs.pdf |journal=Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and Its Applications |volume=452 |pages=9–18 |bibcode=2016PhyA..452....9H |doi=10.1016/j.physa.2016.02.011 |hdl-access=free |hdl=2262/76097}}</ref>
-A [[United Nations]] report in 2002 came to the conclusion that sharp declines in fertility rates in [[India]], [[Nigeria]], and [[Mexico]] occurred despite low levels of [[economic development]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Maria E. Cosio-Zavala|url=https://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/completingfertility/RevisedCosio-Zavalapaper.PDF|title=Examining Changes in the Status of Women And Gender as Predictors Of Fertility Change Issues in Intermediate-Fertility Countries <br>Part of: Completing the Fertility Transition.|publisher=[[United Nations]], Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division|year=2002}}</ref>
+A United Nations report in 2002 came to the conclusion that sharp declines in fertility rates in India, [[Nigeria]], and Mexico occurred despite low levels of [[economic development]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Maria E. Cosio-Zavala|url=https://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/completingfertility/RevisedCosio-Zavalapaper.PDF|title=Examining Changes in the Status of Women And Gender as Predictors Of Fertility Change Issues in Intermediate-Fertility Countries <br>Part of: Completing the Fertility Transition.|publisher=United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division|year=2002}}</ref>
-Vogl, T.S. provided the [[evidence]] that associations between [[income]] and [[fertility]] or between [[Sibling relationship|sibship]] size and [[education]], that used to be positive in [[Developing country|developing countries]] in the [[20th century]], recently became negative: first in [[Latin America]], then in [[Asia]], and finally in [[Africa]].<ref name=":2" /> This is mainly explained by increased education levels.
+Vogl, T.S. provided the evidence that associations between income and fertility or between [[Sibling relationship|sibship]] size and education, that used to be positive in [[Developing country|developing countries]] in the 20th century, recently became negative: first in Latin America, then in Asia, and finally in Africa.<ref name=":2" /> This is mainly explained by increased education levels.
-Fertility declines have been seen during economic [[recession]]s. This phenomenon is seen as a result of pregnancy postponement, especially of first births. However, this effect can be short-term and largely compensated for during later times of economic prosperity.<ref name="balbo2013" />
+Fertility declines have been seen during economic [[recession]]s. This phenomenon is seen as a result of pregnancy postponement, especially of first births. But this effect can be short-term and largely compensated for during later times of economic prosperity.<ref name="balbo2013" />
-Increased unemployment is generally associated with lower fertility.<ref name="balbo2013" /> Nonetheless, in the years after the [[revolutions of 1989]] in Russia, people who were more affected by labour market crises seemed to have a higher [[probability]] of having another child than those who were less affected.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Kohler H.P. |author2=Kohler, I. |year=2002 |title=Fertility Decline in Russia in the Early and Mid 1990s: The Role of Economic Uncertainty and Labour Market Crises |url=http://www.demogr.mpg.de/publications/files/942_1032166505_1_pdf%20version.pdf |journal=European Journal of Population |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=233–262 |doi=10.1023/A:1019701812709 |s2cid=55571696}}</ref> A study in [[France]] came to the result that employment instability has a strong and persistent negative effect on the final number of children for both men and women and contributes to fertility postponement for men. It also came to the result that employment instability has a negative influence on fertility among those with more [[Egalitarianism|egalitarian]] views about the division of labor but still a positive influence for women with more traditional views.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Unstable work histories and fertility in France: An adaptation of sequence complexity measures to employment trajectories|author=Daniel Ciganda|journal=Demographic Research|year=2015|url=http://www.ggp-i.org/form/publications/1056/}}</ref> This can be explained by the fact that countries with more traditional views of women's roles generally tend to have lower female labor force participation and higher fertility rates.<ref>{{Citation |last=Fernández |first=Raquel |title=Does Culture Matter? |date=2011 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-444-53187-2.00011-5 |series=Handbook of Social Economics |volume=1 |pages=481–510 |access-date=2023-05-28 |publisher=Elsevier|doi=10.1016/b978-0-444-53187-2.00011-5 |isbn=9780444537133 |s2cid=13955057 }}</ref>
+Increased unemployment is generally associated with lower fertility.<ref name="balbo2013" /> Nonetheless, in the years after the [[revolutions of 1989]] in Russia, people who were more affected by labour market crises seemed to have a higher [[probability]] of having another child than those who were less affected.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Kohler H.P. |author2=Kohler, I. |year=2002 |title=Fertility Decline in Russia in the Early and Mid 1990s: The Role of Economic Uncertainty and Labour Market Crises |url=http://www.demogr.mpg.de/publications/files/942_1032166505_1_pdf%20version.pdf |journal=European Journal of Population |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=233–262 |doi=10.1023/A:1019701812709 |s2cid=55571696}}</ref> A study in France came to the result that employment instability has a strong and persistent negative effect on the final number of children for both men and women and contributes to fertility postponement for men. It also came to the result that employment instability has a negative influence on fertility among those with more [[Egalitarianism|egalitarian]] views about the division of labor but still a positive influence for women with more traditional views.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Unstable work histories and fertility in France: An adaptation of sequence complexity measures to employment trajectories|author=Daniel Ciganda|journal=Demographic Research|year=2015|url=http://www.ggp-i.org/form/publications/1056/}}</ref> This can be explained by the fact that countries with more traditional views of women's roles generally tend to have lower female labor force participation and higher fertility rates.<ref>{{Citation |last=Fernández |first=Raquel |title=Does Culture Matter? |date=2011 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-444-53187-2.00011-5 |series=Handbook of Social Economics |volume=1 |pages=481–510 |access-date=2023-05-28 |publisher=Elsevier|doi=10.1016/b978-0-444-53187-2.00011-5 |isbn=9780444537133 |s2cid=13955057 }}</ref>
-Another possible factor of lower fertility rates is [[culture]]. Numerous studies show that culture and [[ethnicity]] play a [[Quantitative research|quantitatively]] significant role in explaining variation in women's work and fertility outcomes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Antecol |first=Heather |date=2000 |title=An examination of cross-country differences in the gender gap in labor force participation rates |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0927-5371(00)00007-5 |journal=Labour Economics |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=409–426 |doi=10.1016/s0927-5371(00)00007-5 |issn=0927-5371}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fernández |first1=Raquel |last2=Fogli |first2=Alessandra |date=2009-01-01 |title=Culture: An Empirical Investigation of Beliefs, Work, and Fertility |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/mac.1.1.146 |journal=American Economic Journal: Macroeconomics |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=146–177 |doi=10.1257/mac.1.1.146 |issn=1945-7707}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fernandez |first=Raquel |date=2007 |title=Culture as Learning: The Evolution of Female Labor Force Participation over a Century |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3386/w13373 |journal=CEPR Discussion Paper No. DP6451 |location=Cambridge, MA|doi=10.3386/w13373 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fernández |first1=Raquel |last2=Fogli |first2=Alessandra |date=2006-05-01 |title=Fertility: The Role of Culture and Family Experience |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/jeea.2006.4.2-3.552 |journal=Journal of the European Economic Association |volume=4 |issue=2–3 |pages=552–561 |doi=10.1162/jeea.2006.4.2-3.552 |s2cid=2255680 |issn=1542-4766}}</ref> Simultaneously, culture has a [[Causality|causal effect]] on [[economic development]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hall |first1=Robert |last2=Jones |first2=Charles |date=1999 |title=Why Do Some Countries Produce So Much More Output per Worker than Others? |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3386/w6564 |journal=Quarterly Journal of Economics |location=Cambridge, MA|doi=10.3386/w6564 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Acemoglu |first1=Daron |last2=Johnson |first2=Simon |last3=Robinson |first3=James |date=2002 |title=The Rise of Europe: Atlantic Trade, Institutional Change and Economic Growth |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3386/w9378 |journal=NBER Working Paper No. 9378 |location=Cambridge, MA|doi=10.3386/w9378 }}</ref> Such cultural traits as having trust in other people, appreciating the virtue of having tolerance and respect for others in children, feeling in control of one's life, and appreciating obedience in one's own children appear to be favorable to [[economic development]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tabellini |first=Guido |date=2010 |title=Culture and Institutions: Economic Development in the Regions of Europe |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1542-4774.2010.tb00537.x |journal=Journal of the European Economic Association |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=677–716 |doi=10.1111/j.1542-4774.2010.tb00537.x |s2cid=8126263 |issn=1542-4766}}</ref> Thus, the relationship between income and fertility may be not direct, but determined by a common root – cultural characteristics.
+Another possible factor of lower fertility rates is culture. Numerous studies show that culture and [[ethnicity]] play a [[Quantitative research|quantitatively]] significant role in explaining variation in women's work and fertility outcomes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Antecol |first=Heather |date=2000 |title=An examination of cross-country differences in the gender gap in labor force participation rates |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0927-5371(00)00007-5 |journal=Labour Economics |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=409–426 |doi=10.1016/s0927-5371(00)00007-5 |issn=0927-5371}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fernández |first1=Raquel |last2=Fogli |first2=Alessandra |date=2009-01-01 |title=Culture: An Empirical Investigation of Beliefs, Work, and Fertility |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/mac.1.1.146 |journal=American Economic Journal: Macroeconomics |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=146–177 |doi=10.1257/mac.1.1.146 |issn=1945-7707}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fernandez |first=Raquel |date=2007 |title=Culture as Learning: The Evolution of Female Labor Force Participation over a Century |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3386/w13373 |journal=CEPR Discussion Paper No. DP6451 |location=Cambridge, MA|doi=10.3386/w13373 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fernández |first1=Raquel |last2=Fogli |first2=Alessandra |date=2006-05-01 |title=Fertility: The Role of Culture and Family Experience |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/jeea.2006.4.2-3.552 |journal=Journal of the European Economic Association |volume=4 |issue=2–3 |pages=552–561 |doi=10.1162/jeea.2006.4.2-3.552 |s2cid=2255680 |issn=1542-4766}}</ref> Simultaneously, culture has a [[Causality|causal effect]] on [[economic development]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hall |first1=Robert |last2=Jones |first2=Charles |date=1999 |title=Why Do Some Countries Produce So Much More Output per Worker than Others? |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3386/w6564 |journal=Quarterly Journal of Economics |location=Cambridge, MA|doi=10.3386/w6564 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Acemoglu |first1=Daron |last2=Johnson |first2=Simon |last3=Robinson |first3=James |date=2002 |title=The Rise of Europe: Atlantic Trade, Institutional Change and Economic Growth |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3386/w9378 |journal=NBER Working Paper No. 9378 |location=Cambridge, MA|doi=10.3386/w9378 }}</ref> Such cultural traits as having trust in other people, appreciating the virtue of having tolerance and respect for others in children, feeling in control of one's life, and appreciating obedience in one's own children appear to be favorable to [[economic development]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tabellini |first=Guido |date=2010 |title=Culture and Institutions: Economic Development in the Regions of Europe |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1542-4774.2010.tb00537.x |journal=Journal of the European Economic Association |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=677–716 |doi=10.1111/j.1542-4774.2010.tb00537.x |s2cid=8126263 |issn=1542-4766}}</ref> Thus, the relationship between income and fertility may be not direct, but determined by a common root – cultural characteristics.
-[[Popular culture|Mass culture]] can also influence people's [[Attitude (psychology)|attitudes]] toward having large families. For instance, in [[Brazil]], where [[soap opera]]s depict small families, women living in areas covered by the largest soap opera producer have significantly lower fertility rates.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ferrara |first1=Eliana La |last2=Chong |first2=Alberto |last3=Duryea |first3=Suzanne |date=2012-10-01 |title=Soap Operas and Fertility: Evidence from Brazil |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/app.4.4.1 |journal=American Economic Journal: Applied Economics |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=1–31 |doi=10.1257/app.4.4.1 |hdl=10419/51429 |issn=1945-7782}}</ref> This effect is strongest among women of low socioeconomic status and in the central and late phases of fertility.
+[[Popular culture|Mass culture]] can also influence people's attitudes toward having large families. For instance, in Brazil, where soap operas depict small families, women living in areas covered by the largest soap opera producer have significantly lower fertility rates.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ferrara |first1=Eliana La |last2=Chong |first2=Alberto |last3=Duryea |first3=Suzanne |date=2012-10-01 |title=Soap Operas and Fertility: Evidence from Brazil |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/app.4.4.1 |journal=American Economic Journal: Applied Economics |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=1–31 |doi=10.1257/app.4.4.1 |hdl=10419/51429 |issn=1945-7782}}</ref> This effect is strongest among women of low socioeconomic status and in the central and late phases of fertility.
 Two recent studies in the United States show, that in some circumstances, families whose income has increased will have more children.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=https://ifstudies.org/blog/how-income-affects-fertility|title=How Income Affects Fertility|work=Institute for Family Studies|access-date=2018-03-28|language=en}}</ref> This may be explained by Fertility J-curve.

v t e Notable paradoxes
Philosophical	Analysis Buridan's bridge Dream argument Epicurean Fiction Fitch's knowability Free will Goodman's Hedonism Liberal Meno's Mere addition Moore's Newcomb's Nihilism Omnipotence Preface Rule-following Sorites Theseus' ship White horse Zeno's
Logical	Barber Berry Bhartrhari's Burali-Forti Court Crocodile Curry's Epimenides Free choice paradox Grelling–Nelson Kleene–Rosser Liar Card No-no Pinocchio Quine's Yablo's Opposite Day Paradoxes of set theory Richard's Russell's Socratic Hilbert's Hotel Temperature paradox Barbershop Catch-22 Chicken or the egg Drinker Entailment Lottery Plato's beard Raven Ross's Unexpected hanging "What the Tortoise Said to Achilles" Heat death paradox Olbers' paradox
Economic	Allais Antitrust Arrow information Bertrand Braess's Competition Income and fertility Downs–Thomson Easterlin Edgeworth Ellsberg European Gibson's Giffen good Icarus Jevons Leontief Lerner Lucas Mandeville's Mayfield's Metzler Plenty Productivity Prosperity Scitovsky Service recovery St. Petersburg Thrift Toil Tullock Value
Decision theory	Abilene Apportionment Alabama New states Population Arrow's Buridan's ass Chainstore Condorcet's Decision-making Downs Ellsberg Fenno's Fredkin's Green Hedgehog's Inventor's Kavka's toxin puzzle Morton's fork Navigation Newcomb's Parrondo's Preparedness Prevention Prisoner's dilemma Tolerance Willpower
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