List of forest-inventory conifers in Canada: Difference between revisions
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Revision as of 03:31, 23 April 2024
Canada's national forest inventory includes many native conifer species.[1][a] All except the larches are evergreens.[3] Most are in the pine family, except for yews (in the yew family) and junipers, Alaska cedars and thuja cedars (in the cypress family).[4][5][6][b]
Softwood from North American conifers has a variety of commercial uses. The sturdier timber is used for plywood, wood veneer and construction framing, including structural support beams and studs. Milled logs can be fashioned into posts, poles and railroad ties. Less sturdy timber is often ground and processed into pulpwood, principally for papermaking. Resins from sap yield pine tar, turpentine and other terpenes.[7]
Key
- Provinces and territories (see the Distribution column): AB Alberta, BC British Columbia, MB Manitoba, NB New Brunswick, NL Newfoundland and Labrador, NS Nova Scotia, NT Northwest Territories, NU Nunavut, ON Ontario, PE Prince Edward Island, QC Quebec, SK Saskatchewan, YT Yukon
Conifers
Species and a common name[1][2] | Notes and commercial uses | Distribution in Canada[8]
average |
Limits for soil pH, annual precipitation and low temperature | Tolerance to drought (D), fire (F), liming (L)[c] and shade (S) |
Landscapes, bark, and cones with foliage |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Abies amabilis (Pacific silver fir)[10] | Can reach 230 ft (70 m) in height. The timber is lightweight, with low resin content. The species can easily be distinguished from non-fir conifers by the grey, blistery trunk and rigid branches.
Uses: construction, landscaping, pulpwood, veneers, winter holiday decorations.[10][11] |
BC
none 165 ft (50 m); slow[10] |
pH 3.3–6.0
38–260 in (97–660 cm) −28 °F (−33 °C)[10] |
D: low F: none L: low S: tolerant [10] |
|
Abies balsamea (balsam fir) | A significant source of food and shelter for wildlife. Horizontal blisters in the bark contain scented Canada balsam. The lightweight timber is economically important in Canada.
Uses: construction, landscaping, pulpwood, terpenes, veneers, winter holiday decorations.[12][13] |
All provinces except BC
NB 60 ft (18 m); slow[12] |
pH 4.0–6.0
13–60 in (33–152 cm) −43 °F (−42 °C)[12] |
D: low F: low L: low S: tolerant [12] |
|
Abies grandis (grand fir) | Can reach 230 ft (70 m) in height. The foliage has a distinct orange-like scent. The wood is soft, and not as durable as that of other fir species.
Uses: construction, landscaping, pulpwood, veneers, winter holiday decorations.[14][15] |
BC
none 150 ft (46 m); moderate [14] |
pH 4.5–7.5
11–100 in (28–254 cm) −33 °F (−36 °C)[14] |
D: medium F: high L: low S: tolerant [14] |
|
Abies lasiocarpa (subalpine fir) | Provides habitat for wildlife and nutrition for livestock. Canada's inventory includes Abies bifolia, now considered a synonym of the variety A. lasiocarpa var. lasiocarpa.
Uses: construction, landscaping, pulpwood, winter holiday decorations.[16][17][18][19] |
AB BC NT YT
YT 90 ft (27 m); slow[18] |
pH 4.0–6.5
20–150 in (51–381 cm) −51 °F (−46 °C)[18] |
D: low F: low L: low S: tolerant [18] |
|
Callitropsis nootkatensis (Alaska cedar)[20][21] | Formerly a significant timber tree providing durable, multi-use wood, but most of the trees that are not in protected areas have already been cleared. It is listed as Chamaecyparis nootkatensis in Canada's inventory. | BC
none 75 ft (23 m); slow[20] |
pH 5.5–7.0
45–100 in (110–250 cm) −22 °F (−30 °C)[20] |
D: low F: low L: none S: tolerant [20] |
|
Juniperus scopulorum (Rocky mountain juniper) | Usually a shrub or small tree. The wood is durable, especially when seasoned, and suitable for furniture. The resins are aromatic. | AB BC SK
none 50 ft (15 m); slow[23] |
pH 5.0–8.5
9–26 in (23–66 cm) −38 °F (−39 °C)[23] |
D: high F: low L: high S: intolerant [23] |
|
Juniperus virginiana (Eastern red cedar) | An important support species for wildlife throughout its range. Although the tree has limited commercial use, the wood is highly valued for its appearance and robustness. The resins are aromatic.
Uses: landscaping, posts, veneers, winter holiday decorations.[25][26] |
ON QC
none 50 ft (15 m); slow[25] |
pH 4.7–8.0
15–68 in (38–173 cm) −43 °F (−42 °C)[25] |
D: high F: low L: high S: medium [25] |
|
Larix laricina (Tamarack) | Adapted to a variety of poor soil conditions, including peatland. The tree has one of the widest distributions among North American conifers. | All provinces and territories
NT 80 ft (24 m); rapid[27] |
pH 5.5–6.5
7–55 in (18–140 cm) −79 °F (−62 °C)[27] |
D: low F: none L: low S: intolerant [27] |
|
Larix lyallii (subalpine larch) | Distinguishable from Western larch by its woolly buds and new growth. In its range, the subalpine larch is often found growing higher on cold mountain slopes than other trees. | AB BC
none 40 ft (12 m); slow[29] |
pH 3.9–5.6
26–95 in (66–241 cm) −58 °F (−50 °C)[29] |
D: high F: low L: none S: intolerant [29] |
|
Larix occidentalis (Western larch) | The largest larch, and the most important one commercially for its timber. Also a significant source of arabinogalactan, a gum used as a thickening agent.
Uses: construction, landscaping, posts, pulpwood, veneers.[31][32] |
AB BC
none 200 ft (61 m); rapid[31] |
pH 6.0–7.0
13–50 in (33–127 cm) −43 °F (−42 °C)[31] |
D: low F: low L: low S: intolerant [31] |
|
Picea engelmannii (Engelmann spruce) | Typically contains many small wood knots that lower the grade of the timber. The light colour, long fibres and very low resin content contribute to its high-quality pulpwood.
Uses: construction, landscaping, posts, pulpwood, terpenes, veneers.[33][34] |
AB BC
none 120 ft (37 m); slow[33] |
pH 6.0–8.0
21–160 in (53–406 cm) −50 °F (−46 °C)[33] |
D: low F: low L: high S: tolerant [33] |
|
Picea glauca[d] (white spruce) | One of the main commercial sources of Canadian pulpwood and construction timber. It is also used to build furniture, pallets and musical instruments. | All provinces and territories
MB 100 ft (30 m); slow[35] |
pH 4.0–8.2
7–50 in (18–127 cm) −65 °F (−54 °C)[35] |
D: high F: low L: low S: medium [35] |
|
Picea mariana (black spruce) |
Mainly harvested for pulpwood; construction uses are limited by the small size (for a spruce). The pale yellow wood is lightweight but strong. Birds commonly seen in groves in summer months include ruby-crowned kinglets, ovenbirds, and Setophaga warblers. Uses: construction, landscaping, pulpwood, terpenes, winter holiday decorations.[38][39] |
All provinces and territories
NL 65 ft (20 m); slow[38] |
pH 4.7–6.5
5–60 in (13–152 cm) −79 °F (−62 °C)[38] |
D: low F: none L: low S: tolerant [38] |
|
Picea rubens (red spruce) | The straight-grained wood is lightweight but strong. It is also resonant, and the most popular choice for many stringed instruments.
Uses: construction, posts, pulpwood, terpenes, veneers.[40][41] |
All eastern provinces
NS 110 ft (34 m); moderate [40] |
pH 4.0–5.8
28–52 in (71–132 cm) −47 °F (−44 °C)[40] |
D: medium F: none L: low S: tolerant [40] |
|
Picea sitchensis (Sitka spruce) | The largest spruce, and one of the most prominent along the western Canadian coastline. The strong wood is used in light aircraft, masts and turbine blades. It is also resonant, and is a component in many musical instruments. | BC
none 200 ft (61 m); moderate [42] |
pH 3.9–5.7
22–225 in (56–572 cm) −33 °F (−36 °C)[42] |
D: low F: none L: medium S: tolerant [42] |
|
Pinus albicaulis (whitebark pine) | A slow-growing and long-lived pioneer species that helps reduce the movement of soil and snow across exposed ground. The seeds are a source of nutrition for birds, small mammals, black bears and grizzly bears. | AB BC
none 65 ft (20 m); slow[44] |
pH 4.8–8.0
18–72 in (46–183 cm) −58 °F (−50 °C)[44] |
D: high F: none L: low S: medium [44] |
|
Pinus banksiana (jack pine) | Can be used for utility poles and railroad ties, as well as the general uses below. It has the broadest distribution of any pine species in the country.
Uses: construction, landscaping, posts, pulpwood, terpenes.[46][47] |
All except YT, NU
none 80 ft (24 m); rapid[46] |
pH 6.0–8.2
15–35 in (38–89 cm) −53 °F (−47 °C)[46] |
D: low F: none L: low S: intolerant [46] |
|
Pinus contorta (lodgepole pine) | Can be used for paneling, utility poles and railroad ties, as well as the general uses below. The trees usually grow rapidly when young and can be harvested economically. Canada's inventory includes the varieties P. contorta var. contorta and P. contorta var. latifolia.
Uses: construction, posts, pulpwood, terpenes, veneers.[16][48][49] |
AB BC NT SK YT
AB 99 ft (30 m); rapid[48] |
pH 6.2–7.5
18–25 in (46–64 cm) −70 °F (−57 °C)[48] |
D: low F: low L: high S: intolerant [48] |
|
Pinus flexilis (limber pine) | A slow-growing species not usually grown for its timber, but sometimes harvested along with other species. It is adapted to harsh climates, including windy and dry conditions, and provides the only tree cover available on some sites. The species is long-lived; one specimen was found to be 1650 years old. | AB BC
none 66 ft (20 m); slow[50] |
pH 5.7–6.5
20–70 in (51–178 cm) −43 °F (−42 °C)[50] |
D: high F: low L: medium S: intolerant [50] |
|
Pinus monticola (Western white pine) | The timber is straight-grained, lightweight and low in resin, making it a desirable wood for framing construction and woodworking.
Uses: construction, landscaping, pulpwood, terpenes, veneers.[52][53] |
AB BC
none 200 ft (61 m); rapid[52] |
pH 5.5–7.0
15–30 in (38–76 cm) −33 °F (−36 °C)[52] |
D: low F: low L: medium S: medium [52] |
|
Pinus ponderosa (Ponderosa pine) | Can reach more than 70 metres (230 ft) in height. It is a widely distributed tree in western North America, and one of the main commercial sources of timber, with a relatively fast growth rate.
Uses: construction, landscaping, posts, pulpwood, terpenes, veneers.[54][55] |
BC
none 223 ft (68 m); moderate [54] |
pH 5.0–9.0
15–25 in (38–64 cm) −36 °F (−38 °C)[54] |
D: high F: high L: low S: intolerant [54] |
|
Pinus resinosa (red pine) | One of the fastest-growing and most frequently planted conifer species in Canada. Some of the straight-grained, moderately hard wood is milled to become railroad ties and cabin logs.
Uses: construction, landscaping, posts, pulpwood, veneers, winter holiday decorations.[56][57] |
All eastern provinces + MB
none 80 ft (24 m); rapid[56] |
pH 4.5–6.0
15–60 in (38–152 cm) −43 °F (−42 °C)[56] |
D: low F: low L: none S: intolerant [56] |
|
Pinus rigida (pitch pine) | Uses: landscaping, posts, pulpwood, terpenes, winter holiday decorations.[58][59] | NS ON QC
none 80 ft (24 m); rapid[58] |
pH 3.5–5.1
37–56 in (94–142 cm) −43 °F (−42 °C)[58] |
D: medium F: low L: low S: intolerant [58] |
|
Pinus strobus (eastern white pine) | Uses: construction, landscaping, posts, pulpwood, veneers, winter holiday decorations.[60][61] | All eastern provinces + MB
ON 150 ft (46 m); rapid[60] |
pH 4.0–6.5
20–80 in (51–203 cm) −33 °F (−36 °C)[60] |
D: none F: none L: none S: medium [60] |
|
Pseudotsuga menziesii (Douglas fir) | Canada's inventory includes the varieties P. menziesii var. glauca and P. menziesii var. menziesii.
Uses: construction, landscaping, posts, pulpwood, terpenes, veneers, winter holiday decorations.[16][62][63] |
AB BC
none 200 ft (61 m); moderate [62] |
pH 5.0–7.5
18–100 in (46–254 cm) −33 °F (−36 °C)[62] |
D: low F: low L: low S: medium [62] |
|
Taxus brevifolia (western yew) | Yew family. The seed cones have red arils. | AB BC
none 40 ft (12 m); slow[64] |
pH 6.2–7.5
24–60 in (61–152 cm) −18 °F (−28 °C)[64] |
D: medium F: low L: low S: tolerant [64] |
|
Thuja occidentalis (eastern white-cedar) | Uses: construction, landscaping, posts, pulpwood, veneers.[4][5] | MB and all eastern provinces except NL
none 50 ft (15 m); slow[4] |
pH 5.2–7.0
35–55 in (89–140 cm) −33 °F (−36 °C)[4] |
D: low F: low L: high S: medium [4] |
|
Thuja plicata (western redcedar) | Uses: construction, landscaping, posts, pulpwood, veneers.[66][67] | AB BC
BC 150 ft (46 m); slow[66] |
pH 5.1–7.1
30–120 in (76–305 cm) −33 °F (−36 °C)[66] |
D: low F: low L: medium S: tolerant [66] |
|
Tsuga canadensis (eastern hemlock) | Uses: construction, landscaping, pulpwood.[68][69] | All eastern provinces except NL
none 105 ft (32 m); slow[68] |
pH 4.2–5.7
32–55 in (81–140 cm) −33 °F (−36 °C)[68] |
D: low F: medium L: none S: tolerant [68] |
|
Tsuga heterophylla (western hemlock) | Uses: construction, landscaping, pulpwood, veneers.[70][71] | AB BC
none 170 ft (52 m); slow[70] |
pH 4.5–6.0
38–150 in (97–381 cm) −23 °F (−31 °C)[70] |
D: low F: low L: none S: tolerant [70] |
|
Tsuga mertensiana (mountain hemlock) | Uses: construction, landscaping, pulpwood, veneers.[72][73] | BC
none 125 ft (38 m); slow[72] |
pH 4.5–7.3
42–140 in (110–360 cm) −18 °F (−28 °C)[72] |
D: low F: low L: low S: tolerant [72] |
Genera
Genus, a common name, and family (if not the pine family)[2][8] | Low-oxygen soil tolerance | Cold winters needed[f] |
Frost-free days needed |
Moisture use | Soil salinity tolerance |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Abies (firs) | None (low for A. grandis) | Yes | 60–120 | Medium | None |
Callitropsis (Alaska cedar, cypress family) | Low | Yes | 111 | Medium | None |
Juniperus (junipers, cypress family) | Low or none | Yes | 120–140 | Low | Low |
Larix (larches) | None (low for L. laricina) | Yes (no for L. lyallii) | 60–90 | Low (medium for L. laricina) | None (low for L. laricina) |
Picea (spruces) | Low or none | No (yes for P. glauca and P. mariana) |
30–111 | Medium (high for P. mariana) | None (medium for P. glauca) |
Pinus (pines) | Low or none | Yes | 50–150 | Medium or low | Low or none (medium for P. ponderosa) |
Pseudotsuga (Douglas firs) | Low | Yes | 130 | Medium | Low |
Taxus (yews, yew family) | None | Yes | 140 | Low | None |
Thuja (thuja cedars, cypress family) | Medium (none for T. plicata) | Yes | 100–180 | Medium | Medium (none for T. plicata) |
Tsuga (hemlocks) | None | Yes | 80–160 | Medium (high for T. mertensiana) | None |
See also
Notes
- ^ Not including hybrids. The taxonomy (classification) comes from Plants of the World Online except as noted.[2]
- ^ Thuja cedars are often called just cedars, but so are many other species.
- ^ Labeled "CaCO3" in the USDA Plants Database, referring to a range of liming compounds, not just calcium carbonate.
- ^ Of these sources, only Plants of the World Online lists this as Picea laxa.[2]
- ^ For further explanations of the columns, see the Help Document at "Growth Requirements".[74]
- ^ If yes, then cold stratification will significantly increase spring seed germination.
Citations
- ^ a b c CNFI, Tree Species List.
- ^ a b c d POWO.
- ^ National Plant Data Team 2023, Characteristics, Leaf Retention.
- ^ a b c d e National Plant Data Team & Stevens 2023, Thuja occidentalis': Plant Guide; Characteristics.
- ^ a b Johnston 1991, pp. 580, 587.
- ^ POWO, Taxus, Juniperus, Callitropsis, Thuja.
- ^ National Plant Data Team 2023, Help Document.
- ^ a b National Plant Data Team 2023.
- ^ Canadian Heritage 2017.
- ^ a b c d e National Plant Data Team & Wilken 2023, Abies amabilis: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
- ^ Crawford & Oliver 1991, pp. 22, 23.
- ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team & Northeast Plant Materials Program 2023, Abies balsamea: Fact Sheet; Characteristics.
- ^ Frank 1991, pp. 26–34.
- ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team & Nesom 2023, Abies grandis: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
- ^ Foiles, Graham & Olson, Jr. 1991, pp. 52–58.
- ^ a b c CNFI.
- ^ POWO, Abies bifolia.
- ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team & Nesom 2023, Abies lasiocarpa: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
- ^ Alexander, Shearer & Shepperd 1991, pp. 60–68.
- ^ a b c d e National Plant Data Team 2023, Callitropsis nootkatensis: Characteristics.
- ^ a b Harris 1991, pp. 97–102.
- ^ POWO, Chamaecyparis.
- ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team & Stevens 2023, Juniperus scopulorum: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
- ^ Noble 1991, pp. 116–126.
- ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team et al. 2023, Juniperus virginiana: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
- ^ Lawson 1991, pp. 131–140.
- ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team & Nesom 2023, Larix laricina: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
- ^ Johnston 1991, pp. 141–151.
- ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team 2023, Larix lyallii: Characteristics.
- ^ Arno 1991, pp. 152–159.
- ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team 2023, Larix occidentalis: Characteristics.
- ^ Schmidt & Shearer 1991, pp. 160–172.
- ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team & Nesom 2023, Picea engelmannii: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
- ^ Alexander & Shepperd 1991, pp. 187–203.
- ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team & Nesom 2023, Picea glauca: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
- ^ POWO, Picea glauca.
- ^ Nienstaedt & Zasada 1991, pp. 204–226.
- ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team & Nesom 2023, Picea mariana: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
- ^ Viereck & Johnston 1991, pp. 227–237.
- ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team & Plant Materials Program 2023, Picea rubens: Fact Sheet; Characteristics.
- ^ Blum 1991, pp. 250–259.
- ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team & Moore 2023, Picea sitchensis: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
- ^ Harris 1991, pp. 260–267.
- ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team et al. 2023, Pinus albicaulis: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
- ^ Arno & Hoff 1991, pp. 268–279.
- ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team, Moore & Wilson 2023, Pinus banksiana: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
- ^ Rudolph & Laidly 1991, pp. 280–293.
- ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team 2023, Pinus contorta: Characteristics.
- ^ Lotan & Critchfield 1991, pp. 302–315.
- ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team 2023, Pinus flexilis: Characteristics.
- ^ Steele 1991, pp. 348–354.
- ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team 2023, Pinus monticola: Characteristics.
- ^ Graham 1991, pp. 385–394.
- ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team & Wennerberg 2023, Pinus ponderosa: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
- ^ Oliver & Ryker 1991, pp. 413–424.
- ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team & Moore 2023, Pinus resinosa: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
- ^ Rudolf 1991, pp. 442–455.
- ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team 2023, Pinus rigida: Characteristics.
- ^ Little & Garrett 1991, pp. 456–462.
- ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team & Dickerson 2023, Pinus strobus: Fact Sheet; Characteristics.
- ^ Wendel & Smith 1991, pp. 476–488.
- ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team & Stevens 2023, Pseudotsuga menziesii: Characteristics.
- ^ Hermann & Lavender 1991, pp. 527, 537.
- ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team & Stevens 2023, Taxus brevifolia: Characteristics.
- ^ Bolsinger & Jaramillo 1991, pp. 573, 577, 578.
- ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team & Stevens 2023, Thuja plicata': Plant Guide; Characteristics.
- ^ Minore 1991, pp. 590, 598.
- ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team & Stevens 2023, Tsuga canadensis': Plant Guide; Characteristics.
- ^ Godman & Lancaster 1991, pp. 604, 611.
- ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team & Stevens 2023, Thuja heterophylla': Plant Guide; Characteristics.
- ^ Packee 1991, pp. 613, 621.
- ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team & Stevens 2023, Tsuga mertensiana': Plant Guide; Characteristics.
- ^ Means 1991, pp. 623, 630.
- ^ National Plant Data Team 2023, Help Document.
References
- Alexander, Robert R.; Shearer, Raymond C.; Shepperd, Wayne D. (1991). "Abies lasiocarpa". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 60–68. ISBN 978-0160292606.
- Alexander, Robert R.; Shepperd, Wayne D. (1991). "Picea engelmannii". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 187–203. ISBN 978-0160292606.
- Arno, Stephen F. (1991). "Larix lyallii". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 152–159. ISBN 978-0160292606.
- Arno, Stephen F.; Hoff, Raymond J. (1991). "Pinus albicaulis". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 268–279. ISBN 978-0160292606.
- Blum, Barton M. (1991). "Picea rubens". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 250–259. ISBN 978-0160292606.
- Bolsinger, Charles L.; Jaramillo, Annabelle E. (1991). "Taxus brevifolia". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 573–578. ISBN 978-0160292606.
- Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H., eds. (1991). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). ISBN 978-0160292606.
- Canadian Heritage (2017). "Provincial and territorial symbols". Ottawa, Ontario: Government of Canada. Retrieved April 19, 2024.
- CNFI (2014). "Canada's National Forest Inventory". Ottawa, Ontario: Government of Canada. Retrieved October 15, 2023.
- Crawford, Peggy D.; Oliver, Chadwick Dearing (1991). "Abies amabilis". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 17–23. ISBN 978-0160292606.
- Foiles, Marvin W.; Graham, Russel T.; Olson, Jr., David F. (1991). "Abies grandis". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 52–58. ISBN 978-0160292606.
- Frank, Robert M. (1991). "Abies balsamea". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 26–34. ISBN 978-0160292606.
- Godman, R. M.; Lancaster, Kenneth (1991). "Tsuga canadensis". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 604–611. ISBN 978-0160292606.
- Graham, Russell T. (1991). "Pinus monticola". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 385–394. ISBN 978-0160292606.
- Harris, A. S. (1991). "Callitropsis nootkatensis; Picea sitchensis". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 97–102, 260–267. ISBN 978-0160292606.
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