List of forest-inventory conifers in Canada: Difference between revisions

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Canada's national forest inventory includes many native conifer species.^[1]^[a] All except the larches are evergreens.^[3] Most are in the pine family, except for yews (in the yew family) and junipers, Alaska cedars and thuja cedars (in the cypress family).^[4]^[5]^[6]^[b]

Softwood from North American conifers has a variety of commercial uses. The sturdier timber is used for plywood, wood veneer and construction framing, including structural support beams and studs. Milled logs can be fashioned into posts, poles and railroad ties. Less sturdy timber is often ground and processed into pulpwood, principally for papermaking. Resins from sap yield pine tar, turpentine and other terpenes.^[7]

Key

Provinces and territories (see the Distribution column): AB Alberta, BC British Columbia, MB Manitoba, NB New Brunswick, NL Newfoundland and Labrador, NS Nova Scotia, NT Northwest Territories, NU Nunavut, ON Ontario, PE Prince Edward Island, QC Quebec, SK Saskatchewan, YT Yukon

Conifers

Conifers
Species and a common name^[1]^[2]	Notes and commercial uses	Distribution in Canada^[8] provincial tree of:^[9] average mature height; growth rate	Limits for soil pH, annual precipitation and low temperature	Tolerance to drought (D), fire (F), liming (L)^[c] and shade (S)
Abies amabilis (Pacific silver fir)^[10]	Can reach 230 ft (70 m) in height. The timber is lightweight, with low resin content. The species can easily be distinguished from non-fir conifers by the grey, blistery trunk and rigid branches. Uses: construction, landscaping, pulpwood, veneers, winter holiday decorations.^[10]^[11]	BC none 165 ft (50 m); slow^[10]	pH 3.3–6.0 38–260 in (97–660 cm) −28 °F (−33 °C)^[10]	D: low F: none L: low S: tolerant ^[10]
Abies balsamea (balsam fir)	A significant source of food and shelter for wildlife. Horizontal blisters in the bark contain scented Canada balsam. The lightweight timber is economically important in Canada. Uses: construction, landscaping, pulpwood, terpenes, veneers, winter holiday decorations.^[12]^[13]	All provinces except BC NB 60 ft (18 m); slow^[12]	pH 4.0–6.0 13–60 in (33–152 cm) −43 °F (−42 °C)^[12]	D: low F: low L: low S: tolerant ^[12]
Abies grandis (grand fir)	Can reach 230 ft (70 m) in height. The foliage has a distinct orange-like scent. The wood is soft, and not as durable as that of other fir species. Uses: construction, landscaping, pulpwood, veneers, winter holiday decorations.^[14]^[15]	BC none 150 ft (46 m); moderate ^[14]	pH 4.5–7.5 11–100 in (28–254 cm) −33 °F (−36 °C)^[14]	D: medium F: high L: low S: tolerant ^[14]
Abies lasiocarpa (subalpine fir)	Provides habitat for wildlife and nutrition for livestock. Canada's inventory includes Abies bifolia, now considered a synonym of the variety A. lasiocarpa var. lasiocarpa. Uses: construction, landscaping, pulpwood, winter holiday decorations.^[16]^[17]^[18]^[19]	AB BC NT YT YT 90 ft (27 m); slow^[18]	pH 4.0–6.5 20–150 in (51–381 cm) −51 °F (−46 °C)^[18]	D: low F: low L: low S: tolerant ^[18]
Callitropsis nootkatensis (Alaska cedar)^[20]^[21]	Formerly a significant timber tree providing durable, multi-use wood, but most of the trees that are not in protected areas have already been cleared. It is listed as Chamaecyparis nootkatensis in Canada's inventory. Uses: construction, landscaping.^[1]^[20]^[21]^[22]	BC none 75 ft (23 m); slow^[20]	pH 5.5–7.0 45–100 in (110–250 cm) −22 °F (−30 °C)^[20]	D: low F: low L: none S: tolerant ^[20]
Juniperus scopulorum (Rocky mountain juniper)	Usually a shrub or small tree. The wood is durable, especially when seasoned, and suitable for furniture. The resins are aromatic. Uses: landscaping, posts, veneers.^[23]^[24]	AB BC SK none 50 ft (15 m); slow^[23]	pH 5.0–8.5 9–26 in (23–66 cm) −38 °F (−39 °C)^[23]	D: high F: low L: high S: intolerant ^[23]
Juniperus virginiana (Eastern red cedar)	An important support species for wildlife throughout its range. Although the tree has limited commercial use, the wood is highly valued for its appearance and robustness. The resins are aromatic. Uses: landscaping, posts, veneers, winter holiday decorations.^[25]^[26]	ON QC none 50 ft (15 m); slow^[25]	pH 4.7–8.0 15–68 in (38–173 cm) −43 °F (−42 °C)^[25]	D: high F: low L: high S: medium ^[25]
Larix laricina (Tamarack)	Adapted to a variety of poor soil conditions, including peatland. The tree has one of the widest distributions among North American conifers. Uses: construction, landscaping, posts, pulpwood.^[27]^[28]	All provinces and territories NT 80 ft (24 m); rapid^[27]	pH 5.5–6.5 7–55 in (18–140 cm) −79 °F (−62 °C)^[27]	D: low F: none L: low S: intolerant ^[27]
Larix lyallii (subalpine larch)	Distinguishable from Western larch by its woolly buds and new growth. In its range, the subalpine larch is often found growing higher on cold mountain slopes than other trees. Uses: landscaping.^[29]^[30]	AB BC none 40 ft (12 m); slow^[29]	pH 3.9–5.6 26–95 in (66–241 cm) −58 °F (−50 °C)^[29]	D: high F: low L: none S: intolerant ^[29]
Larix occidentalis (Western larch)	The largest larch, and the most important one commercially for its timber. Also a significant source of arabinogalactan, a gum used as a thickening agent. Uses: construction, landscaping, posts, pulpwood, veneers.^[31]^[32]	AB BC none 200 ft (61 m); rapid^[31]	pH 6.0–7.0 13–50 in (33–127 cm) −43 °F (−42 °C)^[31]	D: low F: low L: low S: intolerant ^[31]
Picea engelmannii (Engelmann spruce)	Typically contains many small wood knots that lower the grade of the timber. The light colour, long fibres and very low resin content contribute to its high-quality pulpwood. Uses: construction, landscaping, posts, pulpwood, terpenes, veneers.^[33]^[34]	AB BC none 120 ft (37 m); slow^[33]	pH 6.0–8.0 21–160 in (53–406 cm) −50 °F (−46 °C)^[33]	D: low F: low L: high S: tolerant ^[33]
Picea glauca^[d] (white spruce)	One of the main commercial sources of Canadian pulpwood and construction timber. It is also used to build furniture, pallets and musical instruments. Uses: construction, pulpwood.^[35]^[36]^[37]	All provinces and territories MB 100 ft (30 m); slow^[35]	pH 4.0–8.2 7–50 in (18–127 cm) −65 °F (−54 °C)^[35]	D: high F: low L: low S: medium ^[35]
Picea mariana (black spruce)	Mainly harvested for pulpwood; construction uses are limited by the small size (for a spruce). The pale yellow wood is lightweight but strong. Birds commonly seen in groves in summer months include ruby-crowned kinglets, ovenbirds, and Setophaga warblers. Uses: construction, landscaping, pulpwood, terpenes, winter holiday decorations.^[38]^[39]	All provinces and territories NL 65 ft (20 m); slow^[38]	pH 4.7–6.5 5–60 in (13–152 cm) −79 °F (−62 °C)^[38]	D: low F: none L: low S: tolerant ^[38]
Picea rubens (red spruce)	The straight-grained wood is lightweight but strong. It is also resonant, and the most popular choice for many stringed instruments. Uses: construction, posts, pulpwood, terpenes, veneers.^[40]^[41]	All eastern provinces NS 110 ft (34 m); moderate ^[40]	pH 4.0–5.8 28–52 in (71–132 cm) −47 °F (−44 °C)^[40]	D: medium F: none L: low S: tolerant ^[40]
Picea sitchensis (Sitka spruce)	The largest spruce, and one of the most prominent along the western Canadian coastline. The strong wood is used in light aircraft, masts and turbine blades. It is also resonant, and is a component in many musical instruments. Uses: construction, pulpwood, terpenes.^[42]^[43]	BC none 200 ft (61 m); moderate ^[42]	pH 3.9–5.7 22–225 in (56–572 cm) −33 °F (−36 °C)^[42]	D: low F: none L: medium S: tolerant ^[42]
Pinus albicaulis (whitebark pine)	A slow-growing and long-lived pioneer species that helps reduce the movement of soil and snow across exposed ground. The seeds are a source of nutrition for birds, small mammals, black bears and grizzly bears. Uses: no significant economic uses.^[44]^[45]	AB BC none 65 ft (20 m); slow^[44]	pH 4.8–8.0 18–72 in (46–183 cm) −58 °F (−50 °C)^[44]	D: high F: none L: low S: medium ^[44]
Pinus banksiana (jack pine)	Sometimes milled to become utility poles and railroad ties. It has the broadest distribution of any pine species in the country. Uses: construction, landscaping, posts, pulpwood, terpenes.^[46]^[47]	All except YT, NU none 80 ft (24 m); rapid^[46]	pH 6.0–8.2 15–35 in (38–89 cm) −53 °F (−47 °C)^[46]	D: low F: none L: low S: intolerant ^[46]
Pinus contorta (lodgepole pine)	Used in paneling, and sometimes milled to become utility poles and railroad ties. The trees usually grow rapidly when young and can be harvested economically. Canada's inventory includes the varieties P. contorta var. contorta and P. contorta var. latifolia. Uses: construction, posts, pulpwood, terpenes, veneers.^[16]^[48]^[49]	AB BC NT SK YT AB 99 ft (30 m); rapid^[48]	pH 6.2–7.5 18–25 in (46–64 cm) −70 °F (−57 °C)^[48]	D: low F: low L: high S: intolerant ^[48]
Pinus flexilis (limber pine)	A slow-growing species not usually grown for its timber, but sometimes harvested along with other species. It is adapted to harsh climates, including windy and dry conditions, and provides the only tree cover available on some sites. The species is long-lived; one specimen was found to be 1650 years old. Uses: construction, landscaping, edible seeds^[50]^[51]	AB BC none 66 ft (20 m); slow^[50]	pH 5.7–6.5 20–70 in (51–178 cm) −43 °F (−42 °C)^[50]	D: high F: low L: medium S: intolerant ^[50]
Pinus monticola (Western white pine)	The timber is straight-grained, lightweight and low in resin, making it a desirable wood for framing construction and woodworking. Uses: construction, landscaping, pulpwood, terpenes, veneers.^[52]^[53]	AB BC none 200 ft (61 m); rapid^[52]	pH 5.5–7.0 15–30 in (38–76 cm) −33 °F (−36 °C)^[52]	D: low F: low L: medium S: medium ^[52]
Pinus ponderosa (Ponderosa pine)	Can reach more than 70 metres (230 ft) in height. It is a widely distributed tree in western North America, and one of the main commercial sources of timber, with a relatively fast growth rate. Uses: construction, landscaping, posts, pulpwood, terpenes, veneers.^[54]^[55]	BC none 223 ft (68 m); moderate ^[54]	pH 5.0–9.0 15–25 in (38–64 cm) −36 °F (−38 °C)^[54]	D: high F: high L: low S: intolerant ^[54]
Pinus resinosa (red pine)	One of the fastest-growing and most frequently planted conifer species in Canada. The wood is straight-grained and moderately hard. Some of it is milled to become railroad ties and cabin logs. Uses: construction, landscaping, posts, pulpwood, veneers, winter holiday decorations.^[56]^[57]	All eastern provinces + MB none 80 ft (24 m); rapid^[56]	pH 4.5–6.0 15–60 in (38–152 cm) −43 °F (−42 °C)^[56]	D: low F: low L: none S: intolerant ^[56]
Pinus rigida (pitch pine)	Rigida (rigid) refers to the needles and cone scales. The wood is resinous and resists rotting; it is suitable for shipbuilding, mine timbers, fencing and railroad ties. Uses: landscaping, posts, pulpwood, terpenes, winter holiday decorations.^[58]^[59]	NS ON QC none 80 ft (24 m); rapid^[58]	pH 3.5–5.1 37–56 in (94–142 cm) −43 °F (−42 °C)^[58]	D: medium F: low L: low S: intolerant ^[58]
Pinus strobus (eastern white pine)	One of the most commercially important trees in eastern North America, in part due to its rapid growth. The timber is durable but soft enough for woodworking. Uses: construction, landscaping, posts, pulpwood, veneers, winter holiday decorations.^[60]^[61]	All eastern provinces + MB ON 150 ft (46 m); rapid^[60]	pH 4.0–6.5 20–80 in (51–203 cm) −33 °F (−36 °C)^[60]	D: none F: none L: none S: medium ^[60]
Pseudotsuga menziesii (Douglas fir)	Worldwide, one of the most commercially successful timber trees. Canada's inventory includes the varieties P. menziesii var. glauca and P. menziesii var. menziesii. Uses: construction, landscaping, posts, pulpwood, terpenes, veneers, winter holiday decorations.^[16]^[62]^[63]	AB BC none 200 ft (61 m); moderate ^[62]	pH 5.0–7.5 18–100 in (46–254 cm) −33 °F (−36 °C)^[62]	D: low F: low L: low S: medium ^[62]
Taxus brevifolia (western yew)	A shade-tolerant tree of the Yew family. When competing with taller and faster-growing trees, it becomes part of the undergrowth. The seed cones have red arils. Uses: landscaping, posts.^[64]^[65]	AB BC none 40 ft (12 m); slow^[64]	pH 6.2–7.5 24–60 in (61–152 cm) −18 °F (−28 °C)^[64]	D: medium F: low L: low S: tolerant ^[64]
Thuja occidentalis (eastern white-cedar)	The termite- and rot-resistant wood is durable in a range of outdoor conditions, and is used in fencing, cabin logs and roof shingles. Uses: construction, landscaping, posts, pulpwood, veneers.^[4]^[5]	MB and all eastern provinces except NL none 50 ft (15 m); slow^[4]	pH 5.2–7.0 35–55 in (89–140 cm) −33 °F (−36 °C)^[4]	D: low F: low L: high S: medium ^[4]
Thuja plicata (western redcedar)	The only native Thuja species in western North America. The lightweight, durable wood makes good insulation, and is often used in shingles and other roofing materials. Uses: construction, landscaping, posts, pulpwood, veneers.^[66]^[67]	AB BC BC 150 ft (46 m); slow^[66]	pH 5.1–7.1 30–120 in (76–305 cm) −33 °F (−36 °C)^[66]	D: low F: low L: medium S: tolerant ^[66]
Tsuga canadensis (eastern hemlock)	Shade-tolerant, long-lived and slow-growing. Historically, it provided the tannin used to turn animal hides into leather. Uses: construction, landscaping, pulpwood.^[68]^[69]	All eastern provinces except NL none 105 ft (32 m); slow^[68]	pH 4.2–5.7 32–55 in (81–140 cm) −33 °F (−36 °C)^[68]	D: low F: medium L: none S: tolerant ^[68]
Tsuga heterophylla (western hemlock)	Used widely in construction. It is also a good source of wood fibre. Uses: construction, landscaping, pulpwood, veneers.^[70]^[71]	AB BC none 170 ft (52 m); slow^[70]	pH 4.5–6.0 38–150 in (97–381 cm) −23 °F (−31 °C)^[70]	D: low F: low L: none S: tolerant ^[70]
Tsuga mertensiana (mountain hemlock)	Grows well in snow-covered subalpine zones. Uses: construction, landscaping, pulpwood, veneers.^[72]^[73]	BC none 125 ft (38 m); slow^[72]	pH 4.5–7.3 42–140 in (110–360 cm) −18 °F (−28 °C)^[72]	D: low F: low L: low S: tolerant ^[72]

Genera

Additional growth requirements for the species listed above, grouped by genus^[e]
Genus, a common name, and family (if not the pine family)^[2]^[8]	Low-oxygen soil tolerance	Cold winters needed^[f]	Frost-free days needed	Moisture use	Soil salinity tolerance
Abies (firs)	None (low for A. grandis)	Yes	60–120	Medium	None
Callitropsis (Alaska cedar, cypress family)	Low	Yes	111	Medium	None
Juniperus (junipers, cypress family)	Low or none	Yes	120–140	Low	Low
Larix (larches)	None (low for L. laricina)	Yes (no for L. lyallii)	60–90	Low (medium for L. laricina)	None (low for L. laricina)
Picea (spruces)	Low or none	No (yes for P. glauca and P. mariana)	30–111	Medium (high for P. mariana)	None (medium for P. glauca)
Pinus (pines)	Low or none	Yes	50–150	Medium or low	Low or none (medium for P. ponderosa)
Pseudotsuga (Douglas firs)	Low	Yes	130	Medium	Low
Taxus (yews, yew family)	None	Yes	140	Low	None
Thuja (thuja cedars, cypress family)	Medium (none for T. plicata)	Yes	100–180	Medium	Medium (none for T. plicata)
Tsuga (hemlocks)	None	Yes	80–160	Medium (high for T. mertensiana)	None

Notes

^ Not including hybrids. The taxonomy (classification) comes from Plants of the World Online except as noted.^[2]
^ Thuja cedars are often called just cedars, but so are many other species.
^ Labeled "CaCO3" in the USDA Plants Database, referring to a range of liming compounds, not just calcium carbonate.
^ Of these sources, only Plants of the World Online lists this as Picea laxa.^[2]
^ For further explanations of the columns, see the Help Document at "Growth Requirements".^[74]
^ If yes, then cold stratification will significantly increase spring seed germination.

Citations

^ ^a ^b ^c CNFI, Tree Species List.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d POWO.
^ National Plant Data Team 2023, Characteristics, Leaf Retention.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e National Plant Data Team & Stevens 2023, Thuja occidentalis': Plant Guide; Characteristics.
^ ^a ^b Johnston 1991, pp. 580, 587.
^ POWO, Taxus, Juniperus, Callitropsis, Thuja.
^ National Plant Data Team 2023, Help Document.
^ ^a ^b National Plant Data Team 2023.
^ Canadian Heritage 2017.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e National Plant Data Team & Wilken 2023, Abies amabilis: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
^ Crawford & Oliver 1991, pp. 22, 23.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d National Plant Data Team & Northeast Plant Materials Program 2023, Abies balsamea: Fact Sheet; Characteristics.
^ Frank 1991, pp. 26–34.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d National Plant Data Team & Nesom 2023, Abies grandis: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
^ Foiles, Graham & Olson, Jr. 1991, pp. 52–58.
^ ^a ^b ^c CNFI.
^ POWO, Abies bifolia.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d National Plant Data Team & Nesom 2023, Abies lasiocarpa: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
^ Alexander, Shearer & Shepperd 1991, pp. 60–68.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e National Plant Data Team 2023, Callitropsis nootkatensis: Characteristics.
^ ^a ^b Harris 1991, pp. 97–102.
^ POWO, Chamaecyparis.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d National Plant Data Team & Stevens 2023, Juniperus scopulorum: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
^ Noble 1991, pp. 116–126.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d National Plant Data Team et al. 2023, Juniperus virginiana: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
^ Lawson 1991, pp. 131–140.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d National Plant Data Team & Nesom 2023, Larix laricina: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
^ Johnston 1991, pp. 141–151.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d National Plant Data Team 2023, Larix lyallii: Characteristics.
^ Arno 1991, pp. 152–159.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d National Plant Data Team 2023, Larix occidentalis: Characteristics.
^ Schmidt & Shearer 1991, pp. 160–172.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d National Plant Data Team & Nesom 2023, Picea engelmannii: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
^ Alexander & Shepperd 1991, pp. 187–203.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d National Plant Data Team & Nesom 2023, Picea glauca: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
^ POWO, Picea glauca.
^ Nienstaedt & Zasada 1991, pp. 204–226.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d National Plant Data Team & Nesom 2023, Picea mariana: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
^ Viereck & Johnston 1991, pp. 227–237.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d National Plant Data Team & Plant Materials Program 2023, Picea rubens: Fact Sheet; Characteristics.
^ Blum 1991, pp. 250–259.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d National Plant Data Team & Moore 2023, Picea sitchensis: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
^ Harris 1991, pp. 260–267.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d National Plant Data Team et al. 2023, Pinus albicaulis: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
^ Arno & Hoff 1991, pp. 268–279.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d National Plant Data Team, Moore & Wilson 2023, Pinus banksiana: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
^ Rudolph & Laidly 1991, pp. 280–293.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d National Plant Data Team 2023, Pinus contorta: Characteristics.
^ Lotan & Critchfield 1991, pp. 302–315.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d National Plant Data Team 2023, Pinus flexilis: Characteristics.
^ Steele 1991, pp. 348–354.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d National Plant Data Team 2023, Pinus monticola: Characteristics.
^ Graham 1991, pp. 385–394.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d National Plant Data Team & Wennerberg 2023, Pinus ponderosa: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
^ Oliver & Ryker 1991, pp. 413–424.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d National Plant Data Team & Moore 2023, Pinus resinosa: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
^ Rudolf 1991, pp. 442–455.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d National Plant Data Team 2023, Pinus rigida: Characteristics.
^ Little & Garrett 1991, pp. 456–462.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d National Plant Data Team & Dickerson 2023, Pinus strobus: Fact Sheet; Characteristics.
^ Wendel & Smith 1991, pp. 476–488.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d National Plant Data Team & Stevens 2023, Pseudotsuga menziesii: Characteristics.
^ Hermann & Lavender 1991, pp. 527, 537.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d National Plant Data Team & Stevens 2023, Taxus brevifolia: Characteristics.
^ Bolsinger & Jaramillo 1991, pp. 573, 577, 578.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d National Plant Data Team & Stevens 2023, Thuja plicata': Plant Guide; Characteristics.
^ Minore 1991, pp. 590, 598.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d National Plant Data Team & Stevens 2023, Tsuga canadensis': Plant Guide; Characteristics.
^ Godman & Lancaster 1991, pp. 604, 611.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d National Plant Data Team & Stevens 2023, Thuja heterophylla': Plant Guide; Characteristics.
^ Packee 1991, pp. 613, 621.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d National Plant Data Team & Stevens 2023, Tsuga mertensiana': Plant Guide; Characteristics.
^ Means 1991, pp. 623, 630.
^ National Plant Data Team 2023, Help Document.

References

Alexander, Robert R.; Shearer, Raymond C.; Shepperd, Wayne D. (1991). "Abies lasiocarpa". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 60–68. ISBN 978-0160292606.
Alexander, Robert R.; Shepperd, Wayne D. (1991). "Picea engelmannii". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 187–203. ISBN 978-0160292606.
Arno, Stephen F. (1991). "Larix lyallii". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 152–159. ISBN 978-0160292606.
Arno, Stephen F.; Hoff, Raymond J. (1991). "Pinus albicaulis". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 268–279. ISBN 978-0160292606.
Blum, Barton M. (1991). "Picea rubens". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 250–259. ISBN 978-0160292606.
Bolsinger, Charles L.; Jaramillo, Annabelle E. (1991). "Taxus brevifolia". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 573–578. ISBN 978-0160292606.
Canadian Heritage (2017). "Provincial and territorial symbols". Ottawa, Ontario: Government of Canada. Retrieved April 19, 2024.
CNFI (2014). "Canada's National Forest Inventory". Ottawa, Ontario: Government of Canada. Retrieved October 15, 2023.
Crawford, Peggy D.; Oliver, Chadwick Dearing (1991). "Abies amabilis". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 17–23. ISBN 978-0160292606.
Foiles, Marvin W.; Graham, Russel T.; Olson, Jr., David F. (1991). "Abies grandis". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 52–58. ISBN 978-0160292606.
Frank, Robert M. (1991). "Abies balsamea". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 26–34. ISBN 978-0160292606.
Godman, R. M.; Lancaster, Kenneth (1991). "Tsuga canadensis". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 604–611. ISBN 978-0160292606.
Graham, Russell T. (1991). "Pinus monticola". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 385–394. ISBN 978-0160292606.
Harris, A. S. (1991). "Callitropsis nootkatensis; Picea sitchensis". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 97–102, 260–267. ISBN 978-0160292606.
Hermann, Richard K.; Lavender, Denis P. (1991). "Pseudotsuga menziesii". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 527–537. ISBN 978-0160292606.
Johnston, William F. (1991). "Larix laricina; Thuja occidentalis". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 141–151, 580–587. ISBN 978-0160292606.
Lawson, Edwin R. (1991). "Juniperus virginiana". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 131–140. ISBN 978-0160292606.
Little, Silas; Garrett, Peter W. (1991). "Pinus rigida". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 456–462. ISBN 978-0160292606.
Lotan, James E.; Critchfield, William B. (1991). "Pinus contorta". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 302–315. ISBN 978-0160292606.
Means, Joseph E. (1991). "Tsuga mertensiana". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 623–630. ISBN 978-0160292606.
Minore, Don (1991). "Thuja plicata". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 590–598. ISBN 978-0160292606.
National Plant Data Team (2023). "USDA Plants Database". Washington, DC, US: Natural Resources Conservation Service, US Department of Agriculture. Retrieved October 16, 2023.
National Plant Data Team; Dickerson, John (2023). "USDA Plants Database". Washington, DC, US: Natural Resources Conservation Service, US Department of Agriculture. Pinus strobus. Retrieved October 16, 2023.
National Plant Data Team; Moore, Lincoln M. (2023). "USDA Plants Database". Washington, DC, US: Natural Resources Conservation Service, US Department of Agriculture. Picea sitchensis; Pinus resinosa. Retrieved October 16, 2023.
National Plant Data Team; Moore, Lincoln M.; Wilson, Jeffrey D. Walker (2023). "USDA Plants Database". Washington, DC, US: Natural Resources Conservation Service, US Department of Agriculture. Pinus banksiana. Retrieved October 16, 2023.
National Plant Data Team; Nesom, Guy (2023). "USDA Plants Database". Washington, DC, US: Natural Resources Conservation Service, US Department of Agriculture. Abies grandis, Abies lasiocarpa, Larix laricina, Picea engelmannii, Picea glauca; Picea mariana. Retrieved October 16, 2023.
National Plant Data Team; Northeast Plant Materials Program (2023). "USDA Plants Database". Washington, DC, US: Natural Resources Conservation Service, US Department of Agriculture. Abies balsamea. Retrieved October 16, 2023.
National Plant Data Team; Plant Materials Program (2023). "USDA Plants Database". Washington, DC, US: Natural Resources Conservation Service, US Department of Agriculture. Picea rubens. Retrieved October 16, 2023.
National Plant Data Team; Stevens, Michelle (2023). "USDA Plants Database". Washington, DC, US: Natural Resources Conservation Service, US Department of Agriculture. Juniperus scopulorum. Retrieved October 16, 2023.
National Plant Data Team; Stevens, Michelle; Kaiser, Jerry; Dozier, Ivan (2023). "USDA Plants Database". Washington, DC, US: Natural Resources Conservation Service, US Department of Agriculture. Juniperus virginiana. Retrieved October 16, 2023.
National Plant Data Team; Tilley, Derek; St. John, Loren; Ogle, Dan (2023). "USDA Plants Database". Washington, DC, US: Natural Resources Conservation Service, US Department of Agriculture. Pinus albicaulis. Retrieved October 16, 2023.
National Plant Data Team; Wennerberg, Sarah (2023). "USDA Plants Database". Washington, DC, US: Natural Resources Conservation Service, US Department of Agriculture. Pinus ponderosa. Retrieved October 16, 2023.
National Plant Data Team; Wilken, Dieter (2023). "USDA Plants Database". Washington, DC, US: Natural Resources Conservation Service, US Department of Agriculture. Abies amabilis. Retrieved October 16, 2023.
Nienstaedt, Hans; Zasada, John C. (1991). "Picea glauca". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 204–226. ISBN 978-0160292606.
Noble, Daniel L. (1991). "Juniperus scopulorum". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 116–126. ISBN 978-0160292606.
Oliver, William W.; Ryker, Russell A. (1991). "Pinus ponderosa". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 413–424. ISBN 978-0160292606.
Packee, E. C. (1991). "Tsuga heterophylla". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 613–621. ISBN 978-0160292606.
POWO (2019). "Plants of the World Online". London: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved January 10, 2023. See their terms-of-use license.
Rudolf, Paul O. (1991). "Pinus resinosa". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 442–455. ISBN 978-0160292606.
Rudolph, T. D.; Laidly, P. R. (1991). "Pinus banksiana". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 280–293. ISBN 978-0160292606.
Schmidt, Wyman C.; Shearer, Raymond C. (1991). "Larix occidentalis". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 160–172. ISBN 978-0160292606.
Steele, Robert (1991). "Pinus flexilis". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 348–354. ISBN 978-0160292606.
Viereck, Leslie A.; Johnston, William F. (1991). "Picea mariana". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 227–237. ISBN 978-0160292606.
Wendel, G. W.; Smith, H. Clay (1991). "Pinus strobus". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 476–488. ISBN 978-0160292606.

[3] Not including hybrids. The taxonomy (classification) comes from Plants of the World Online except as noted.^[2]

[8] Thuja cedars are often called just cedars, but so are many other species.

[12] Labeled "CaCO3" in the USDA Plants Database, referring to a range of liming compounds, not just calcium carbonate.

[38] Of these sources, only Plants of the World Online lists this as Picea laxa.^[2]

[79] For further explanations of the columns, see the Help Document at "Growth Requirements".^[74]

[80] If yes, then cold stratification will significantly increase spring seed germination.

[FOOTNOTECNFITree_Species_List-1] CNFI, Tree Species List.

[FOOTNOTEPOWO-2] POWO.

[FOOTNOTENational_Plant_Data_Team2023Characteristics,_Leaf_Retention-4] National Plant Data Team 2023, Characteristics, Leaf Retention.

[FOOTNOTENational_Plant_Data_TeamStevens2023[httpsplantsusdagovhomeplantProfilesymbolTHOC2_''Thuja_occidentalis']:_Plant_Guide;_Characteristics-5] National Plant Data Team & Stevens 2023, Thuja occidentalis': Plant Guide; Characteristics.

[FOOTNOTEJohnston1991580,_587-6] Johnston 1991, pp. 580, 587.

[FOOTNOTEPOWO''Taxus,_Juniperus,_Callitropsis,_Thuja''-7] POWO, Taxus, Juniperus, Callitropsis, Thuja.

[FOOTNOTENational_Plant_Data_Team2023[httpsplantsusdagovassetsdocsPLANTS_Help_Documentpdfpage35_Help_Document]-9] National Plant Data Team 2023, Help Document.

[FOOTNOTENational_Plant_Data_Team2023-10] National Plant Data Team 2023.

[FOOTNOTECanadian_Heritage2017-11] Canadian Heritage 2017.

[FOOTNOTENational_Plant_Data_TeamWilken2023[httpsplantsusdagovhomeplantProfilesymbolABAM_''Abies_amabilis'']:_Plant_Guide;_Characteristics-13] National Plant Data Team & Wilken 2023, Abies amabilis: Plant Guide; Characteristics.

[FOOTNOTECrawfordOliver199122,_23-14] Crawford & Oliver 1991, pp. 22, 23.

[FOOTNOTENational_Plant_Data_TeamNortheast_Plant_Materials_Program2023[httpsplantsusdagovhomeplantProfilesymbolABBA_''Abies_balsamea'']:_Fact_Sheet;_Characteristics-15] National Plant Data Team & Northeast Plant Materials Program 2023, Abies balsamea: Fact Sheet; Characteristics.

[FOOTNOTEFrank199126–34-16] Frank 1991, pp. 26–34.

[FOOTNOTENational_Plant_Data_TeamNesom2023[httpsplantsusdagovhomeplantProfilesymbolABGR_''Abies_grandis'']:_Plant_Guide;_Characteristics-17] National Plant Data Team & Nesom 2023, Abies grandis: Plant Guide; Characteristics.

[FOOTNOTEFoilesGrahamOlson,_Jr.199152–58-18] Foiles, Graham & Olson, Jr. 1991, pp. 52–58.

[FOOTNOTECNFI-19] CNFI.

[FOOTNOTEPOWO''Abies_bifolia''-20] POWO, Abies bifolia.

[FOOTNOTENational_Plant_Data_TeamNesom2023[httpsplantsusdagovhomeplantProfilesymbolABLA_''Abies_lasiocarpa'']:_Plant_Guide;_Characteristics-21] National Plant Data Team & Nesom 2023, Abies lasiocarpa: Plant Guide; Characteristics.

[FOOTNOTEAlexanderShearerShepperd199160–68-22] Alexander, Shearer & Shepperd 1991, pp. 60–68.

[FOOTNOTENational_Plant_Data_Team2023[httpsplantsusdagovhomeplantProfilesymbolCANO9_''Callitropsis_nootkatensis'']:_Characteristics-23] National Plant Data Team 2023, Callitropsis nootkatensis: Characteristics.

[FOOTNOTEHarris199197–102-24] Harris 1991, pp. 97–102.

[FOOTNOTEPOWO''Chamaecyparis''-25] POWO, Chamaecyparis.

[FOOTNOTENational_Plant_Data_TeamStevens2023[httpsplantsusdagovhomeplantProfilesymbolJUSC2_''Juniperus_scopulorum'']:_Plant_Guide;_Characteristics-26] National Plant Data Team & Stevens 2023, Juniperus scopulorum: Plant Guide; Characteristics.

[FOOTNOTENoble1991116–126-27] Noble 1991, pp. 116–126.

[FOOTNOTENational_Plant_Data_TeamStevensKaiserDozier2023[httpsplantsusdagovhomeplantProfilesymbolJUVI_''Juniperus_virginiana'']:_Plant_Guide;_Characteristics-28] National Plant Data Team et al. 2023, Juniperus virginiana: Plant Guide; Characteristics.

[FOOTNOTELawson1991131–140-29] Lawson 1991, pp. 131–140.

[FOOTNOTENational_Plant_Data_TeamNesom2023[httpsplantsusdagovhomeplantProfilesymbolLALA_''Larix_laricina'']:_Plant_Guide;_Characteristics-30] National Plant Data Team & Nesom 2023, Larix laricina: Plant Guide; Characteristics.

[FOOTNOTEJohnston1991141–151-31] Johnston 1991, pp. 141–151.

[FOOTNOTENational_Plant_Data_Team2023[httpsplantsusdagovhomeplantProfilesymbolLALY_''Larix_lyallii'']:_Characteristics-32] National Plant Data Team 2023, Larix lyallii: Characteristics.

[FOOTNOTEArno1991152–159-33] Arno 1991, pp. 152–159.

[FOOTNOTENational_Plant_Data_Team2023[httpsplantsusdagovhomeplantProfilesymbolLAOC_''Larix_occidentalis'']:_Characteristics-34] National Plant Data Team 2023, Larix occidentalis: Characteristics.

[FOOTNOTESchmidtShearer1991160–172-35] Schmidt & Shearer 1991, pp. 160–172.

[FOOTNOTENational_Plant_Data_TeamNesom2023[httpsplantsusdagovhomeplantProfilesymbolPIEN_''Picea_engelmannii'']:_Plant_Guide;_Characteristics-36] National Plant Data Team & Nesom 2023, Picea engelmannii: Plant Guide; Characteristics.

[FOOTNOTEAlexanderShepperd1991187–203-37] Alexander & Shepperd 1991, pp. 187–203.

[FOOTNOTENational_Plant_Data_TeamNesom2023[httpsplantsusdagovhomeplantProfilesymbolPIGL_''Picea_glauca'']:_Plant_Guide;_Characteristics-39] National Plant Data Team & Nesom 2023, Picea glauca: Plant Guide; Characteristics.

[FOOTNOTEPOWO''Picea_glauca''-40] POWO, Picea glauca.

[FOOTNOTENienstaedtZasada1991204–226-41] Nienstaedt & Zasada 1991, pp. 204–226.

[FOOTNOTENational_Plant_Data_TeamNesom2023[httpsplantsusdagovhomeplantProfilesymbolPIMA_''Picea_mariana'']:_Plant_Guide;_Characteristics-42] National Plant Data Team & Nesom 2023, Picea mariana: Plant Guide; Characteristics.

[FOOTNOTEViereckJohnston1991227–237-43] Viereck & Johnston 1991, pp. 227–237.

[FOOTNOTENational_Plant_Data_TeamPlant_Materials_Program2023[httpsplantsusdagovhomeplantProfilesymbolPIRU_''Picea_rubens'']:_Fact_Sheet;_Characteristics-44] National Plant Data Team & Plant Materials Program 2023, Picea rubens: Fact Sheet; Characteristics.

[FOOTNOTEBlum1991250–259-45] Blum 1991, pp. 250–259.

[FOOTNOTENational_Plant_Data_TeamMoore2023[httpsplantsusdagovhomeplantProfilesymbolPISI_''Picea_sitchensis'']:_Plant_Guide;_Characteristics-46] National Plant Data Team & Moore 2023, Picea sitchensis: Plant Guide; Characteristics.

[FOOTNOTEHarris1991260–267-47] Harris 1991, pp. 260–267.

[FOOTNOTENational_Plant_Data_TeamTilleySt._JohnOgle2023[httpsplantsusdagovhomeplantProfilesymbolPIAL_''Pinus_albicaulis'']:_Plant_Guide;_Characteristics-48] National Plant Data Team et al. 2023, Pinus albicaulis: Plant Guide; Characteristics.

[FOOTNOTEArnoHoff1991268–279-49] Arno & Hoff 1991, pp. 268–279.

[FOOTNOTENational_Plant_Data_TeamMooreWilson2023[httpsplantsusdagovhomeplantProfilesymbolPIBA2_''Pinus_banksiana'']:_Plant_Guide;_Characteristics-50] National Plant Data Team, Moore & Wilson 2023, Pinus banksiana: Plant Guide; Characteristics.

[FOOTNOTERudolphLaidly1991280–293-51] Rudolph & Laidly 1991, pp. 280–293.

[FOOTNOTENational_Plant_Data_Team2023[httpsplantsusdagovhomeplantProfilesymbolPICO_''Pinus_contorta'']:_Characteristics-52] National Plant Data Team 2023, Pinus contorta: Characteristics.

[FOOTNOTELotanCritchfield1991302–315-53] Lotan & Critchfield 1991, pp. 302–315.

[FOOTNOTENational_Plant_Data_Team2023[httpsplantsusdagovhomeplantProfilesymbolPIFL2_''Pinus_flexilis'']:_Characteristics-54] National Plant Data Team 2023, Pinus flexilis: Characteristics.

[FOOTNOTESteele1991348–354-55] Steele 1991, pp. 348–354.

[FOOTNOTENational_Plant_Data_Team2023[httpsplantsusdagovhomeplantProfilesymbolPIMO3_''Pinus_monticola'']:_Characteristics-56] National Plant Data Team 2023, Pinus monticola: Characteristics.

[FOOTNOTEGraham1991385–394-57] Graham 1991, pp. 385–394.

[FOOTNOTENational_Plant_Data_TeamWennerberg2023[httpsplantsusdagovhomeplantProfilesymbolPIPO_''Pinus_ponderosa'']:_Plant_Guide;_Characteristics-58] National Plant Data Team & Wennerberg 2023, Pinus ponderosa: Plant Guide; Characteristics.

[FOOTNOTEOliverRyker1991413–424-59] Oliver & Ryker 1991, pp. 413–424.

[FOOTNOTENational_Plant_Data_TeamMoore2023[httpsplantsusdagovhomeplantProfilesymbolPIRE_''Pinus_resinosa'']:_Plant_Guide;_Characteristics-60] National Plant Data Team & Moore 2023, Pinus resinosa: Plant Guide; Characteristics.

[FOOTNOTERudolf1991442–455-61] Rudolf 1991, pp. 442–455.

[FOOTNOTENational_Plant_Data_Team2023[httpsplantsusdagovhomeplantProfilesymbolPIRI_''Pinus_rigida'']:_Characteristics-62] National Plant Data Team 2023, Pinus rigida: Characteristics.

[FOOTNOTELittleGarrett1991456–462-63] Little & Garrett 1991, pp. 456–462.

[FOOTNOTENational_Plant_Data_TeamDickerson2023[httpsplantsusdagovhomeplantProfilesymbolPIST_''Pinus_strobus'']:_Fact_Sheet;_Characteristics-64] National Plant Data Team & Dickerson 2023, Pinus strobus: Fact Sheet; Characteristics.

[FOOTNOTEWendelSmith1991476–488-65] Wendel & Smith 1991, pp. 476–488.

[FOOTNOTENational_Plant_Data_TeamStevens2023[httpsplantsusdagovhomeplantProfilesymbolPSME_''Pseudotsuga_menziesii'']:_Characteristics-66] National Plant Data Team & Stevens 2023, Pseudotsuga menziesii: Characteristics.

[FOOTNOTEHermannLavender1991527,_537-67] Hermann & Lavender 1991, pp. 527, 537.

[FOOTNOTENational_Plant_Data_TeamStevens2023[httpsplantsusdagovhomeplantProfilesymbolTABR2_''Taxus_brevifolia'']:_Characteristics-68] National Plant Data Team & Stevens 2023, Taxus brevifolia: Characteristics.

[FOOTNOTEBolsingerJaramillo1991573,_577,_578-69] Bolsinger & Jaramillo 1991, pp. 573, 577, 578.

[FOOTNOTENational_Plant_Data_TeamStevens2023[httpsplantsusdagovhomeplantProfilesymbolTHPL_''Thuja_plicata']:_Plant_Guide;_Characteristics-70] National Plant Data Team & Stevens 2023, Thuja plicata': Plant Guide; Characteristics.

[FOOTNOTEMinore1991590,_598-71] Minore 1991, pp. 590, 598.

[FOOTNOTENational_Plant_Data_TeamStevens2023[httpsplantsusdagovhomeplantProfilesymbolTSCA_''Tsuga_canadensis']:_Plant_Guide;_Characteristics-72] National Plant Data Team & Stevens 2023, Tsuga canadensis': Plant Guide; Characteristics.

[FOOTNOTEGodmanLancaster1991604,_611-73] Godman & Lancaster 1991, pp. 604, 611.

[FOOTNOTENational_Plant_Data_TeamStevens2023[httpsplantsusdagovhomeplantProfilesymbolTSHE_''Thuja_heterophylla']:_Plant_Guide;_Characteristics-74] National Plant Data Team & Stevens 2023, Thuja heterophylla': Plant Guide; Characteristics.

[FOOTNOTEPackee1991613,_621-75] Packee 1991, pp. 613, 621.

[FOOTNOTENational_Plant_Data_TeamStevens2023[httpsplantsusdagovhomeplantProfilesymbolTSME_''Tsuga_mertensiana']:_Plant_Guide;_Characteristics-76] National Plant Data Team & Stevens 2023, Tsuga mertensiana': Plant Guide; Characteristics.

[FOOTNOTEMeans1991623,_630-77] Means 1991, pp. 623, 630.

[FOOTNOTENational_Plant_Data_Team2023[httpsplantsusdagovassetsdocsPLANTS_Help_Documentpdfpage30_Help_Document]-78] National Plant Data Team 2023, Help Document.

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[9]

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[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]

[28]

[29]

[30]

[31]

[32]

[33]

[34]

[d]

[35]

[36]

[37]

[38]

[39]

[40]

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@@ Line 23: / Line 23: @@
 ! scope="col" class=unsortable width="1%" |Landscapes, bark, and cones with foliage
 |-
-|scope="row" |''[[Abies amabilis]]'' (Pacific silver fir){{sfn|National Plant Data Team|Wilken|2023|loc=[https://plants.usda.gov/home/plantProfile?symbol=ABAM ''Abies amabilis'']: Plant Guide; Characteristics}}
+!scope="row" |''[[Abies amabilis]]'' (Pacific silver fir){{sfn|National Plant Data Team|Wilken|2023|loc=[https://plants.usda.gov/home/plantProfile?symbol=ABAM ''Abies amabilis'']: Plant Guide; Characteristics}}
 |Can reach {{cvt|230|ft}} in height. The timber is lightweight, with low resin content. The species can easily be distinguished from non-fir conifers by the grey, blistery trunk and rigid branches.
 Uses: construction, landscaping, pulpwood, veneers, winter holiday decorations.{{sfn|National Plant Data Team|Wilken|2023|loc=[https://plants.usda.gov/home/plantProfile?symbol=ABAM ''Abies amabilis'']: Plant Guide; Characteristics}}{{sfn|Crawford|Oliver|1991|pp=22,23}}
@@ Line 50: / Line 50: @@
 }}
 |-
-|scope="row" |''[[Abies balsamea]]'' (balsam fir)
+!scope="row" |''[[Abies balsamea]]'' (balsam fir)
 |A significant source of food and shelter for wildlife. Horizontal blisters in the bark contain scented [[Canada balsam]]. The lightweight timber is economically important in Canada.
@@ Line 78: / Line 78: @@
 }}
 |-
-|scope="row" |''[[Abies grandis]]'' (grand fir)
+!scope="row" |''[[Abies grandis]]'' (grand fir)
 |Can reach {{cvt|230|ft}} in height. The foliage has a distinct orange-like scent. The wood is soft, and not as durable as that of other fir species.
 Uses: construction, landscaping, pulpwood, veneers, winter holiday decorations.{{sfn|National Plant Data Team|Nesom|2023|loc=[https://plants.usda.gov/home/plantProfile?symbol=ABGR ''Abies grandis'']: Plant Guide; Characteristics}}{{sfn|Foiles|Graham|Olson, Jr.|1991|pp=52–58}}
@@ Line 102: / Line 102: @@
 }}
 |-
-|scope="row" |''[[Abies lasiocarpa]]'' (subalpine fir)
+!scope="row" |''[[Abies lasiocarpa]]'' (subalpine fir)
 |Provides habitat for wildlife and nutrition for livestock.  Canada's inventory includes ''Abies bifolia'', now considered a [[Synonym (taxonomy)|synonym]] of the [[Variety (botany)|variety]] ''A. lasiocarpa'' var. ''lasiocarpa''.
@@ Line 127: / Line 127: @@
 }}
 |-
-|scope="row" |''[[Callitropsis nootkatensis]]'' (Alaska cedar){{sfn|National Plant Data Team|2023|loc=[https://plants.usda.gov/home/plantProfile?symbol=CANO9 ''Callitropsis nootkatensis'']: Characteristics}}{{sfn|Harris|1991|pp=97–102}}
+!scope="row" |''[[Callitropsis nootkatensis]]'' (Alaska cedar){{sfn|National Plant Data Team|2023|loc=[https://plants.usda.gov/home/plantProfile?symbol=CANO9 ''Callitropsis nootkatensis'']: Characteristics}}{{sfn|Harris|1991|pp=97–102}}
 |Formerly a significant timber tree providing durable, multi-use wood, but most of the trees that are not in protected areas have already been cleared. It is listed as ''Chamaecyparis nootkatensis'' in Canada's inventory.
@@ Line 152: / Line 152: @@
 }}
 |-
-|scope="row" |''[[Juniperus scopulorum]]'' (Rocky mountain juniper)
+!scope="row" |''[[Juniperus scopulorum]]'' (Rocky mountain juniper)
 |Usually a shrub or small tree. The wood is durable, especially when [[Wood drying|seasoned]], and suitable for furniture. The resins are aromatic.
 Uses: landscaping, posts, veneers.{{sfn|National Plant Data Team|Stevens|2023|loc=[https://plants.usda.gov/home/plantProfile?symbol=JUSC2 ''Juniperus scopulorum'']: Plant Guide; Characteristics}}{{sfn|Noble|1991|pp=116–126}}
@@ Line 176: / Line 176: @@
 }}
 |-
-|scope="row" |''[[Juniperus virginiana]]'' (Eastern red cedar)
+!scope="row" |''[[Juniperus virginiana]]'' (Eastern red cedar)
 |An important support species for wildlife throughout its range. Although the tree has limited commercial use, the wood is highly valued for its appearance and robustness. The resins are aromatic.
 Uses: landscaping, posts, veneers, winter holiday decorations.{{sfn|National Plant Data Team|Stevens|Kaiser|Dozier|2023|loc=[https://plants.usda.gov/home/plantProfile?symbol=JUVI ''Juniperus virginiana'']: Plant Guide; Characteristics}}{{sfn|Lawson|1991|pp=131–140}}
@@ Line 200: / Line 200: @@
 }}
 |-
-|scope="row" |''[[Larix laricina]]'' (Tamarack)
+!scope="row" |''[[Larix laricina]]'' (Tamarack)
 |Adapted to a variety of poor soil conditions, including [[peatland]]. The tree has one of the widest distributions among North American conifers.
 Uses: construction, landscaping, posts, pulpwood.{{sfn|National Plant Data Team|Nesom|2023|loc=[https://plants.usda.gov/home/plantProfile?symbol=LALA ''Larix laricina'']: Plant Guide; Characteristics}}{{sfn|Johnston|1991|pp=141–151}}
@@ Line 224: / Line 224: @@
 }}
 |-
-|scope="row" |''[[Larix lyallii]]'' (subalpine larch)
+!scope="row" |''[[Larix lyallii]]'' (subalpine larch)
 |Distinguishable from [[Western larch]] by its woolly buds and new growth. In its range, the subalpine larch is often found growing higher on cold mountain slopes than other trees.
 Uses: landscaping.{{sfn|National Plant Data Team|2023|loc=[https://plants.usda.gov/home/plantProfile?symbol=LALY ''Larix lyallii'']: Characteristics}}{{sfn|Arno|1991|pp=152–159}}
@@ Line 248: / Line 248: @@
 }}
 |-
-|scope="row" |''[[Larix occidentalis]]'' (Western larch)
+!scope="row" |''[[Larix occidentalis]]'' (Western larch)
 |The largest larch, and the most important one commercially for its timber. Also a significant source of [[arabinogalactan]], a gum used as a thickening agent.
 Uses: construction, landscaping, posts, pulpwood, veneers.{{sfn|National Plant Data Team|2023|loc=[https://plants.usda.gov/home/plantProfile?symbol=LAOC ''Larix occidentalis'']: Characteristics}}{{sfn|Schmidt|Shearer|1991|pp=160–172}}
@@ Line 272: / Line 272: @@
 }}
 |-
-|scope="row" |''[[Picea engelmannii]]'' (Engelmann spruce)
+!scope="row" |''[[Picea engelmannii]]'' (Engelmann spruce)
 |Typically contains many small [[Wood#Knots|wood knots]] that lower the [[Lumber#Grades and standards|grade]] of the timber. The light colour, long fibres and very low resin content contribute to its high-quality pulpwood.
 Uses: construction, landscaping, posts, pulpwood, terpenes, veneers.{{sfn|National Plant Data Team|Nesom|2023|loc=[https://plants.usda.gov/home/plantProfile?symbol=PIEN ''Picea engelmannii'']: Plant Guide; Characteristics}}{{sfn|Alexander|Shepperd|1991|pp=187–203}}
@@ Line 296: / Line 296: @@
 }}
 |-
-|scope="row" |''[[Picea glauca]]''{{efn-la|Of these sources, only ''Plants of the World Online'' lists this as ''Picea laxa''.{{sfn|POWO}} }} (white spruce)
+!scope="row" |''[[Picea glauca]]''{{efn-la|Of these sources, only ''Plants of the World Online'' lists this as ''Picea laxa''.{{sfn|POWO}} }} (white spruce)
 |One of the main commercial sources of Canadian pulpwood and construction timber. It is also used to build furniture, [[Pallet|pallets]] and musical instruments.
@@ Line 321: / Line 321: @@
 }}
 |-
-|scope="row" |''[[Picea mariana]]'' (black spruce)
+!scope="row" |''[[Picea mariana]]'' (black spruce)
 |
 Mainly harvested for pulpwood; construction uses are limited by the small size (for a spruce). The pale yellow wood is lightweight but strong. Birds commonly seen in groves in summer months include [[ruby-crowned kinglet]]s, [[ovenbird]]s, and ''[[Setophaga]]'' warblers.
@@ Line 347: / Line 347: @@
 }}
 |-
-|scope="row" |''[[Picea rubens]]'' (red spruce)
+!scope="row" |''[[Picea rubens]]'' (red spruce)
 |The straight-[[Wood grain|grained]] wood is lightweight but strong. It is also resonant, and the most popular choice for many stringed instruments.
 Uses: construction, posts, pulpwood, terpenes, veneers.{{sfn|National Plant Data Team|Plant Materials Program|2023|loc=[https://plants.usda.gov/home/plantProfile?symbol=PIRU ''Picea rubens'']: Fact Sheet; Characteristics}}{{sfn|Blum|1991|pp=250–259}}
@@ Line 371: / Line 371: @@
 }}
 |-
-|scope="row" |''[[Picea sitchensis]]'' (Sitka spruce)
+!scope="row" |''[[Picea sitchensis]]'' (Sitka spruce)
 |The largest spruce, and one of the most prominent along the western Canadian coastline. The strong wood is used in light aircraft, [[Mast (sailing)|masts]] and turbine blades. It is also resonant, and is a component in many musical instruments.
 Uses: construction, pulpwood, terpenes.{{sfn|National Plant Data Team|Moore|2023|loc=[https://plants.usda.gov/home/plantProfile?symbol=PISI ''Picea sitchensis'']: Plant Guide; Characteristics}}{{sfn|Harris|1991|pp=260–267}}
@@ Line 588: / Line 588: @@
 }}
 |-
-|scope="row" |''[[Pinus strobus]]'' (eastern white pine)
+!scope="row" |''[[Pinus strobus]]'' (eastern white pine)
 |One of the most commercially important trees in eastern North America, in part due to its rapid growth. The timber is durable but soft enough for woodworking.
 Uses: construction, landscaping, posts,  pulpwood, veneers, winter holiday decorations.{{sfn|National Plant Data Team|Dickerson|2023|loc=[https://plants.usda.gov/home/plantProfile?symbol=PIST ''Pinus strobus'']: Fact Sheet; Characteristics}}{{sfn|Wendel|Smith|1991|pp=476–488}}
@@ Line 612: / Line 612: @@
 }}
 |-
-|scope="row" |''[[Pseudotsuga menziesii]]'' (Douglas fir)
+!scope="row" |''[[Pseudotsuga menziesii]]'' (Douglas fir)
 |Worldwide, one of the most commercially successful timber trees. Canada's inventory includes the [[Variety (botany)|varieties]] [[Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca|''P. menziesii'' var. ''glauca'']] and [[Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii|''P. menziesii'' var. ''menziesii'']].
@@ Line 640: / Line 640: @@
 }}
 |-
-|scope="row" |''[[Taxus brevifolia]]'' (western yew)
+!scope="row" |''[[Taxus brevifolia]]'' (western yew)
 |A shade-tolerant tree of the Yew family. When competing with taller and faster-growing trees, it becomes part of the [[Understory|undergrowth]]. The seed cones have red [[aril]]s.
@@ Line 668: / Line 668: @@
 }}
 |-
-|scope="row" |''[[Thuja occidentalis]]'' (eastern white-cedar)
+!scope="row" |''[[Thuja occidentalis]]'' (eastern white-cedar)
 |The [[termite]]- and rot-resistant wood is durable in a range of outdoor conditions, and is used in fencing, cabin logs and roof shingles.
 Uses: construction, landscaping, posts, pulpwood, veneers.{{sfn|National Plant Data Team|Stevens|2023|loc=[https://plants.usda.gov/home/plantProfile?symbol=THOC2 ''Thuja occidentalis']: Plant Guide; Characteristics}}{{sfn|Johnston|1991|pp=580,587}}
@@ Line 695: / Line 695: @@
 }}
 |-
-|scope="row" |''[[Thuja plicata]]'' (western redcedar)
+!scope="row" |''[[Thuja plicata]]'' (western redcedar)
 |The only native ''Thuja'' species in western North America. The lightweight, durable wood makes good insulation, and is often used in shingles and other roofing materials.
 Uses: construction, landscaping, posts, pulpwood, veneers.{{sfn|National Plant Data Team|Stevens|2023|loc=[https://plants.usda.gov/home/plantProfile?symbol=THPL ''Thuja plicata']: Plant Guide; Characteristics}}{{sfn|Minore|1991|pp=590,598}}
@@ Line 722: / Line 722: @@
 }}
 |-
-|scope="row" |''[[Tsuga canadensis]]'' (eastern hemlock)
+!scope="row" |''[[Tsuga canadensis]]'' (eastern hemlock)
 |Shade-tolerant, long-lived and slow-growing. Historically, it provided the [[tannin]] used to turn animal hides into leather.
 Uses: construction, landscaping, pulpwood.{{sfn|National Plant Data Team|Stevens|2023|loc=[https://plants.usda.gov/home/plantProfile?symbol=TSCA ''Tsuga canadensis']: Plant Guide; Characteristics}}{{sfn|Godman|Lancaster|1991|pp=604,611}}
@@ Line 749: / Line 749: @@
 }}
 |-
-|scope="row" |''[[Tsuga heterophylla]]'' (western hemlock)
+!scope="row" |''[[Tsuga heterophylla]]'' (western hemlock)
 |Used widely in construction. It is also a good source of wood fibre.
 Uses: construction, landscaping, pulpwood, veneers.{{sfn|National Plant Data Team|Stevens|2023|loc=[https://plants.usda.gov/home/plantProfile?symbol=TSHE ''Thuja heterophylla']: Plant Guide; Characteristics}}{{sfn|Packee|1991|pp=613,621}}
@@ Line 776: / Line 776: @@
 }}
 |-
-|scope="row" |''[[Tsuga mertensiana]]'' (mountain hemlock)
+!scope="row" |''[[Tsuga mertensiana]]'' (mountain hemlock)
 |Grows well in snow-covered subalpine zones.
 Uses: construction, landscaping, pulpwood, veneers.{{sfn|National Plant Data Team|Stevens|2023|loc=[https://plants.usda.gov/home/plantProfile?symbol=TSME ''Tsuga mertensiana']: Plant Guide; Characteristics}}{{sfn|Means|1991|pp=623,630}}