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Banksia ericifolia

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Heath-leaved Banksia
Banksia ericifolia, cultivated at Colac, Victoria
Secure
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Plantae
Division:
Magnoliophyta
Class:
Magnoliopsida
Order:
Proteales
Family:
Proteaceae
Genus:
Banksia
Series:
Spicigerae
Species:
B. ericifolia
Binomial name
Banksia ericifolia
Subspecies

Banksia ericifolia, the Heath-leaved Banksia (also known as the Lantern Banksia or Heath Banksia), is a species of woody shrub of the Proteaceae family native to Australia; it occurs in two separate regions of Central and Northern New South Wales east of the Great Dividing Range. Well known for its orange or red autumn inflorescences, which contrast with its green fine-leaved heath-like foliage, it is generally encountered as a medium to large shrub that can reach 6 m (20 ft) high and wide, though is usually half that size. In exposed heathlands and coastal areas it is more often 1-2 m (3-7 ft).

Banksia ericifolia was one of the original Banksia species collected by Joseph Banks around Botany Bay in 1770 and was named by Carl Linnaeus the Younger, son of Carolus Linnaeus, in 1782. A distinctive plant, it has been split into two subspecies: Banksia ericifolia subspecies ericifolia of the Sydney region and Banksia ericifolia subspecies macrantha of the New South Wales Far North Coast which was recognized in 1996.

Banksia ericifolia has been widely grown in Australian gardens on the east coast for many years as well as being used to a limited extent in the cut flower industry. Compact dwarf cultivars such as Banksia 'Little Eric' have become more popular in recent years with the trend toward smaller gardens.

Description

B. ericifolia "White Candles" showing rare multiple spikes

Banksia ericifolia grows as a large shrub up to 6 metres (20 ft) in height, though often smaller, around 1–2 metres (3–6 ft), in exposed places such as coastal or mountain heathlands. The grey-coloured bark is smooth and fairly thin with lenticels; however it can thicken significantly with age. The linear dark green leaves are small and narrow, 9–20 mm (⅓–¾ in) long and up to 1 mm wide, generally with two small teeth at the tips. The leaves are crowded and alternately arranged on the branches.[1] New growth generally occurs in summer and is an attractive lime green colour.[2]

Flowering is in autumn or winter in cooler areas; the inflorescences are flower spikes 7–22 cm (3–10 in) high and 5 cm (2 in) broad or so. Each individual flower consists of a tubular perianth made up of four fused tepals, and one long wiry style. Characteristic of the taxonomic section in which it is placed, the styles are hooked rather than straight. The styles' ends are initially trapped inside the upper perianth parts, but break free at anthesis, when the flowers open.[3] The spikes are red or gold in overall colour, with styles golden, orange, orange-red or burgundy. Some unusual forms have striking red styles on a whitish perianth. Very occasionally, forms with all yellow inflorescences are seen. Though not terminal, the flower spikes are fairly prominently displayed emerging from the foliage; they arise from two- to three-year-old nodes.

Old flower spikes fade to brown and then grey with age; old flower parts soon fall, revealing numerous small dark grey to dull black finely furred follicles. Oblong in shape and 15–20 mm (⅓–⅔ in) in diameter, the follicles are ridged on each valve and remain closed until burnt by fire.[1] Banksia ericifolia responds to fire by seeding, the parent plant being killed. As plants take several years to flower in the wild, it is very sensitive to too-frequent burns and has been eliminated in some areas where this occurs. With time and the production of more cones with seed-containing follicles, however, plants can store up to 16,500 seeds at eight years of age.[4] Occasionally, plants occur which may produce multiple flower spikes from a single point of origin; these may be of varying sizes.[5][6]

Taxonomy

Banksia ericifolia, unusual yellow flowers, late bud cult. near Falls Creek, NSW
more usual red styles on orange colour, Erowal Bay, NSW

B. ericifolia was first collected at Botany Bay on 29 April 1770, by Sir Joseph Banks and Dr Daniel Solander, naturalists on the Endeavour during Lieutenant (later Captain) James Cook's first voyage to the Pacific Ocean.[7][8] However, the species was not published until April 1782, when Carolus Linnaeus the Younger described the first four Banksia species in his Supplementum Plantarum. Linnaeus distinguished the species by their leaf shapes and named them accordingly. Thus the species with leaves reminiscent of heather (at the time classified in the genus Erica) was given the specific name ericaefolia, from the Latin erica, meaning "heather", and folium, meaning "leaf".[9] The full name for the species is therefore Banksia ericifolia L.f.[10]

The English botanist Richard Salisbury described this plant as Banksia phylicaefolia in 1796, though this was not adopted. While many species have undergone much taxonomic change over the next 200 years, the distinctive Banksia ericifolia as a species concept remained unchanged until the northern form was published as a distinct taxon, macrantha, in 1996. The late amateur botanist Alf Salkin had noted these differences in his 1979 thesis and given this form the provisional infraspecific name "microphylla". He also noted some differences in those populations of the Blue Mountains and felt there were three distinct forms in total, with one being a possible hybrid with Banksia spinulosa var. cunninghamii.[11]

Placement within Banksia

Banksia ericifolia has traditionally been described as lying within series Spicigerae of Banksia, together with Banksia spinulosa and various western Hairpin-like Banksias such as B. seminuda and B. brownii. This series in placed in Banksia sect. Oncostylis according to Alex George's taxonomy of Banksia,[12][3] but directly into Banksia subg. Banksia in Thiele's arrangement based on cladistic analysis.[13] Kevin Thiele additionally placed it in a subseries Ericifoliae,[13] but this was not supported by George.

Under George's taxonomic arrangement of Banksia, B. ericifolia's placement may be summarised as follows:[14]

Genus Banksia
Subgenus Banksia
Section Banksia
Section Coccinea
Section Oncostylis
Series Spicigerae
B. spinulosa - B. ericifolia - B. verticillata - B. seminuda - B. littoralis - B. occidentalis - B. brownii
Series Tricuspidae
Series Dryandroidae
Series Abietinae
Subgenus Isostylis

Molecular research by American botanist Austin Mast suggests that B. spinulosa and B. ericifolia may be more closely related to Banksia ser. Salicinae, with includes Banksia integrifolia and its relatives.[15]

In 2005, Mast, Eric Jones and Shawn Havery published the results of their cladistic analyses of DNA sequence data for Banksia. They inferred a phylogeny markedly different from the accepted taxonomic arrangement, including finding Banksia to be paraphyletic with respect to Dryandra.[16] A full new taxonomic arrangement was not published at the time, but early in 2007 Mast and Australian botanist Kevin Thiele initiated a rearrangement by transferring Dryandra to Banksia, and publishing B. subg. Spathulatae for the species having spoon-shaped cotyledons; in this way they also redefined the autonym B. subg. Banksia. They foreshadowed publishing a full arrangement once DNA sampling of Dryandra was complete; in the meantime, if Mast and Thiele's nomenclatural changes are taken as an interim arrangement, then B. ericifolia is placed in B. subg. Spathulatae.[17]

Hybrids with B. spinulosa var. spinulosa have been recorded in the wild, at Pigeon House Mountain in Morton National Park.[1] Banksia 'Giant Candles' was a chance garden hybrid between B. ericifolia and B. spinulosa var. cunninghamii.[18]

Subspecies

orange flowers & long leaves, Australian National Botanic Gardens

Two geographically distinct forms are recognised:

  • Banksia ericifolia subsp. ericifolia: The nominate race is found in the Sydney basin, south to the Illawarra and north to Collaroy, as well as the Blue Mountains. The seedling leaves have 2–6 teeth on each margin, while the perianths are 19–22 mm (¾ in) long and pistils are 30–35 mm (1¼ in) long. Salkin noted that this subspecies often grew in association with Banksia spinulosa var. cunninghamii and that there were plants with longer leaves some 20–25 mm (¾–1 in) long with entire, curled margins. He gave them the name "longifolia" and suspected these may have been hybrids.[11]
  • Banksia ericifolia subsp. macrantha: The northern race is found on the New South Wales north coast, from Crowdy Head northwards to the Queensland border. Described as a distinct subspecies in 1996 by Alex George from material he collected at Byron Bay in 1975, it is distinguished by finer foliage, more crowded leaves and larger flowers, with the perianths 26–28 mm (1 in) long and pistils 46–48 mm (1¾ in) long. The seedling leaves have one, or occasionally two teeth on each margin. Salkin observed that the inflorescences tended to be terminal rather than axial,[11] and others have noted them to be sometimes taller than the nominate subspecies. Crowdy Bay, in particular, hosts specimens with spikes up to 26 cm (10 in) in height.[2]

Name and symbolism

In 1992 it was adopted as the official plant of Sydney,[19] and is sometimes seen in amenity plantings and parks around the city. It was known as wadanggari (pron. "wa-tang-gre") to the local Eora and Darug inhabitants of the Sydney basin.[20]

Distribution and habitat

distribution map of Banksia ericifolia

In nature, the variety ericifolia is found on acidic sandstone-based soils; either in elevated heathland within two km of the coast around the Sydney basin, from Collaroy south to Jervis Bay, or elevated sandstone soils in mountainous areas such as the Blue Mountains and the Budawangs.[2] These heathlands are often moist, with access to some form of underground water, and can even be quite swampy.[3] It can form dense thickets with the Dagger Hakea (Hakea teretifolia) and Scrub She-oak (Allocasuarina distyla).[21] Other plants it associates with include the Coast Tea-tree (Leptospermum laevigatum) and smaller plants such as Woollsia pungens. The inflorescences are a feature of autumn bushwalking in sandstone areas, such as the Kings Tableland walk in the Blue Mountains, Jennifer Street Boardwalk in Little Bay, and Royal National Park.

The northern subspecies macrantha is found in two distinct regions on the far north coast of New South Wales; the first from Crowdy Bay on the Mid North Coast northwards to Hat Head National Park north of Port Macquarie, and then from Yuraygir National Park north to Kingscliff just south of the Queensland border. This variety is more strictly coastal with most populations being found within two kilometres of the coast,[2] and may also be found in swampy areas.[3] It may be associated with Banksia oblongifolia.[12]

Ecology

See also: Ecology of Banksia

Like other banksias, B. ericifolia plays host to a wide variety of pollinators and is a vital source of nectar in autumn, when other flowers are scarce. It has been the subject of a number of studies on pollination. A 1998 study in Bundjalung National Park in Northern New South Wales found that B. ericifolia inflorescences are foraged by a variety of small mammals, including marsupials such as the Yellow-footed Antechinus (Antechinus flavipes), and rodents such as the Pale Field Rat (Rattus tunneyi) and Grassland Mosaic-tailed Rat (Melomys burtoni). These animals carry pollen loads comparable to those of nectarivorous birds, making them effective pollinators.[22] A 1978 study found the Bush Rat (Rattus fuscipes) to bear large amounts of pollen from B. ericifolia and suggested the hooked styles may play a role in pollination by mammals.[23] Other visitors recorded include the honeybee Apis mellifera.[22]

A great many bird species have been observed visiting this species. A 1985 study in the Sydney area of B. ericifolia var. ericifolia found numerous creatures visiting the inflorescences, including the honeyeaters Eastern Spinebill (Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris), White-cheeked Honeyeater (Phylidonyris nigra), New Holland Honeyeater (Phylidonyris novaehollandiae), White-naped Honeyeater (Melithreptus lunatus), Yellow-faced Honeyeater (Lichenostomus chrysops), Red Wattlebird (Anthochaera carunculata) and Little Wattlebird (Anthochaera chrysoptera), as well as the Silvereye (Zosterops lateralis). Some mammals were recorded but were found to bear no pollen. Exclusion of certain pollinators showed that birds and insects were important for fertilisation. [24] Additional species seen in The Banksia Atlas survey include White-eared Honeyeater (Lichenostomus leucotis), White-plumed Honeyeater (Lichenostomus penicillatus), Crescent Honeyeater (Phylidonyris pyrrhoptera), Noisy Miner (Manorina melanocephala), and friarbird (Philemon spp.) for B. e. ericifolia and Brown Honeyeater (Lichmera indistincta), Tawny-crowned Honeyeater (Phylidonyris melanops) and Black-faced Cuckoo-shrike (Coracina novaehollandiae) for B. e. macrantha.[2]

Like most other Proteaceae, B. ericifolia has proteoid roots, roots with dense clusters of short lateral rootlets that form a mat in the soil just below the leaf litter. These enhance solubilisation of nutrients, allowing nutrient uptake in low-nutrient soils such as the phosphorus-deficient native soils of Australia.[1] The species lacks a lignotuber, and so is killed by fire and regenerates from seed.

Banksia ericifolia depends on fire for regeneration; if fires are too infrequent, populations can become aging and eventually die out.[25] However, too-frequent fires also threaten this species, which takes around 6 years to reach maturity and flower. One study estimated an optimum fire interval time of 15–30 years.[26] For a large part of its distribution Banksia ericifolia grows near areas of human habitation on Australia's eastern coastline. Bushland near urban areas is subject to both arson and prescribed burns, drastically reducing fire intervals and resulting in the disappearance of the species from some areas.[27][28] The hotter a fire the more quickly seed is released; timing of rains afterwards is also critical for seedling survival.[25]

Banksia ericifolia is listed in Part 1 Group 1 of Schedule 13 of the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974; this means that as a common and secure species it is exempted from any licensing or tagging requirements under the 2002-2005 management plan to minimise and regulate the use of protected and threatened plants in the cut-flower industry in New South Wales.[29]

Cultivation

Historically, Banksia ericifolia was introduced into cultivation in England in 1788,[30] and was mentioned (as B. ericaefolia) in volume 6 of Curtis's Botanical Magazine where it was described as, "...a handsome shrub, thrives freely, and has flowered in several collections". An illustration was drawn of one growing in Vauxhall, a suburb of south London, in 1802.[11]

Banksia ericifolia inflorescences attract a variety of birds to the garden.[31] Tough enough to be used as a street plant in parts of Sydney, B. ericifolia is a fairly easy plant to grow in the conditions it likes, namely a sandy, well drained soil, sunny aspect, and extra water over dryer periods until established, which may take up to two years, as it comes from an area with rainfall in predominantly warmer months. It is resistant to Phytophthora cinnamomi dieback, like most eastern banksias[32]. As it grows naturally on acid soils, Banksia ericifolia is particularly sensitive to iron deficiency. Known as chlorosis, this problem manifests as yellowing of new leaves with preservation of green veins; it can occur on plants grown in soils of high pH. This can happen especially where soil contains quantities of cement, either as landfill or building foundations, and can be treated with iron chelate or sulfate.[33]

Flowering may take some years from seed; a minimum of four years is average. Buying an advanced plant may hasten this process, as will getting a cutting-grown plant. Banksia ericifolia can be propagated easily by seed, and is one of the (relatively) easier banksias to propagate by cutting.[34] Named cultivars are by necessity propagated by cuttings as this ensures that the plant produced bears the same attributes as the original plant.

Regular pruning is important to give the plant an attractive habit and prevent it from becoming leggy. Hard-pruning below green growth is not advisable with this banksia: as it lacks a lignotuber, it does not have dormant buds below the bark that respond to pruning or fire and is hence unable to sprout from old wood as readily as commonly cultivated lignotuberous species such as B. spinulosa and B. robur.[35]

For many years the horticulture industry focussed on registered selections of Banksia spinulosa, but since the late 1990s more and more cultivars of Banksia ericifolia have come on the market, including colour variants and dwarf forms. This is especially important as the original plant may reach a size of 5 metres in height, and hence helps enthusiasts choose a plant that is right for their conditions and tastes.[36] Banksia ericifolia is also grown for the cut flower industry in Australia, though not to the degree that the western Australian species such as B. coccinea and B. menziesii are.[37]

Cultivars

B. ‘Little Eric’,
showing compact habit.
Cult. in Kenthurst, NSW

There are a number of commercial varieties available from Australian retail nurseries, however none have yet been registered under plant breeders' rights legislation, and only one with the Australian Cultivar Registration Authority. The lack of official names has led to some varieties bearing several different names.

  • Banksia ericifolia ‘Bronzed Aussie’ is a white-budded terminal-flowering form to 2 m with bronzed foliage; the inflorescences have honey-coloured pistils. It has been propagated by Victorian nurseryman Rod Parsons of Carawah Nursery in Hoddles Creek. A new release in 2003, its provenance is unknown; seed had been given to Rod’s father by SGAP member many years ago.[36]
  • Banksia ericifolia ‘Golden Girl’ is a golden yellow-flowered form which grows to 1.5–1.8 m (5–6 ft) in height with blue-grey foliage. It has hidden wide fat flowers to 8 cm high and has been propagated by Rod Parsons of Carawah Nursery. Released in 2003, its provenance is unknown (seed donated to Rod’s father by SGAP member many years ago.)[36]
  • Banksia ericifolia ‘Kanangra Gold’, propagated by Kuranga Nursery in Melbourne, is a gold flowered form to 4 m (13 ft) from the Kanangra-Boyd region of the Blue Mountains. It is bushy and flowers are much paler than the regular orange or red forms.[36]
  • Banksia ericifolia ‘Limelight’, registered with Australian Cultivar Registration Authority (ACRA) in 1987, is a large plant to 5 m (16 ft) with bright lime green foliage and orange blossoms. It is seldom seen due to the current focus on smaller forms for smaller gardens.[35][36]
B. ericifolia ‘White Candles’
cult. Sydney
  • Banksia ericifolia ‘Little Eric’ is a dwarf form to 1 or 2 m (3–6 ft); the inflorescences have maroon styles and whitish perianth. It is propagated by Richard Anderson of Merricks Nursery on the Mornington Peninsula southeast of Melbourne, the original having arisen as a chance garden seedling.[36]
  • Banksia ericifolia ‘Purple Pygmy’, also called B. 'Port Wine', is a dwarf form propagated by Kuranga Nursery to 1 m (3 ft) with purplish foliage with claret flowers. It only flowers rarely and is difficult to propagate. Also, due to low demand it is only propagated in low numbers.[38][39]
  • Banksia ericifolia ‘Red Rover’ is a dwarf cultivar reaching 1.8 m (6 ft) with a more open habit than other forms of similar size. This form has lime green foliage and scarlet-red flowers and was propagated by Rod Parsons of Carawah Nursery from a garden selection and released in 2004.[36]
  • Banksia ericifolia ‘St Pauls’ is a dwarf form to 2 m (6 ft) with conspicuous red inflorescences which has been available from time to time from Cranebrook Nursery in Sydney’s western suburbs. It was originally propagated from a plant cultivated at St Pauls’ secondary school (a local high school).[36]
  • Banksia ericifolia ‘White candles/Christmas Candles’, also known as B. ericifolia ‘Ruby Clusters’, originates from a plant growing in the Sutherland Shire in Sydney’s south. It has an unusual red style/white body colour combination somewhat reminiscent of B. coccinea. The buds are white and contrast with the red styles that emerge through them. It is an open shrub to 3–4 m (9–13 ft).[36]
  • Banksia ericifolia macrantha ‘Creamed Honey’, so called as its flowers are the colour of creamed honey, is a pale flowered variant originally found at Crowdy Head on the New South Wales north coast. Propagated by Kuranga nursery, it grows to 4 or 5 m (12–16 ft) with a more open habit. It is notable in that it is the only cultivar of the northern subspecies of Banksia ericifolia currently available.

References

  1. ^ a b c d Harden, Gwen (2002). "Banksia". In Harden, Gwen (ed) (ed.). Flora of New South Wales: Volume 2 (Revised Edition). Kensington: New South Wales University Press. p. 204. ISBN 0-86840-156-0. {{cite book}}: |editor= has generic name (help)
  2. ^ a b c d e Taylor, Anne; Hopper, Stephen (1988). The Banksia Atlas (Australian Flora and Fauna Series Number 8). Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service. ISBN 0-644-07124-9.
  3. ^ a b c d George, Alex (1999). "Banksia". In Wilson, Annette (ed.) (ed.). Flora of Australia: Volume 17B: Proteaceae 3: Hakea to Dryandra. CSIRO Publishing / Australian Biological Resources Study. pp. 175–251. ISBN 0-643-06454-0. {{cite book}}: |editor= has generic name (help)
  4. ^ Honig MA, Cowling RM, Richardson DM (1992). (abstract) "The invasive potential of Australian banksias in South African fynbos: A comparison of the reproductive potential of Banksia ericifolia and Leucadendron laureolum". Australian journal of ecology. 17 (3): 305–314. Retrieved 2007-06-28. {{cite journal}}: Check |url= value (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. ^ Johnson, S (1992). "Multiple Flower Heads". Banksia Study Report. 9: 58. ISSN 0728-2893.
  6. ^ Blake, T (1988). "Multiple Heads". Banksia Study Report. 8: 2. ISSN 0728-2893.
  7. ^ William J. L. Wharton (ed.), ed. (1893). Captain Cook's Journal during his First Voyage Round the World made in H. M. Bark "Endeavour" 1768-71: A Literal Transcription of the Original MSS . London: E. Stock. {{cite book}}: |editor= has generic name (help)
  8. ^ Banks, Sir Joseph. "29 April 1770". Banks's Journal. Retrieved 2006-10-25.
  9. ^ Carolus Linnaeus the Younger (1782). Supplementum Plantarum. Brunsvigae: Orphanotrophei.
  10. ^ "Banksia ericifolia L.f." Australian Plant Name Index (APNI), IBIS database. Centre for Plant Biodiversity Research, Australian Government.
  11. ^ a b c d Salkin, Abraham Isaac (1979). Variation In Banksia in Eastern Australia: An Investigation Using Experimental Methods. Clayton, Victoria: Monash University. p. 239. (Master's thesis)
  12. ^ a b George, Alex (1981). "The genus Banksia L.f. (Proteaceae)". Nuytsia. 3 (3): 239–473. ISSN 0085-4417.
  13. ^ a b Thiele, Kevin and Pauline Y. Ladiges (1996). "A Cladistic Analysis of Banksia (Proteaceae)". Australian Systematic Botany. 9 (5): 661–733. doi:10.1071/SB9960661.
  14. ^ Cite error: The named reference George 1999 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  15. ^ Mast, Austin and Thomas J. Givnish (2002). "Historical biogeography and the origin of stomatal distributions in Banksia and Dryandra (Proteaceae) based on Their cpDNA phylogeny". American Journal of Botany. 89 (8): 1311–1323. ISSN 0002-9122. Retrieved 2006-07-02.
  16. ^ Mast, Austin R. (2005). "An Assessment of Old and New DNA sequence evidence for the Paraphyly of Banksia with respect to Dryandra (Proteaceae)". Australian Systematic Botany. 18 (1): 75–88. doi:10.1071/SB04015. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  17. ^ Mast, Austin R. (2007). "The transfer of Dryandra R.Br. to Banksia L.f. (Proteaceae)". Australian Systematic Botany. 20: 63–71. doi:10.1071/SB06016. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  18. ^ Australian Cultivar Registration Authority. "Banksia 'Giant Candles'". Descriptions of registered cultivars. Retrieved 2006-11-15.
  19. ^ Sydney City Council. "Sydney's Official Flower". Sydney City Council. Retrieved 2007-06-20.
  20. ^ Troy, Jakelin (1993). The sydney language. Canberra: Jakelin Troy. ISBN 0-646-11015-2.
  21. ^ Fairley A, Moore P (2000). Native Plants of the Sydney District:An Identification Guide (2nd ed. ed.). Kenthurst, NSW: Kangaroo Press. p. 173. ISBN 0-7318-1031-7. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
  22. ^ a b Hackett, Damian J. "Pollination of Banksia spp. by non-flying mammals in north-eastern New South Wales". Australian Journal of Botany. 49 (5): 637–644. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  23. ^ Carpenter, F. Lynn (1978). "Hooks for mammal pollination?". Oecologia. 35 (2): 123–132. doi:10.1007/BF00344725.
  24. ^ Paton, D.C. (1985). "Pollination of Banksia ericifolia Smith: Birds, mammals and insects as pollen vectors". Australian Journal of Botany. 33 (3): 271–286. doi:10.1071/BT9850271. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  25. ^ a b Bradstock RA, Myerscough PJ (1981). "Fire effects on seed release and the emergence and establishment of seedling in Banksia ericifolia L. f." Australian Journal of Botany. 29: 521–531. doi:10.1071/BT9810521.
  26. ^ Bradstock RA, O'Connell MA (1988). (abstract) "Demography of woody plants in relation to fire: Banksia ericifolia L.f. and Petrophile pulchella (Schrad) R.Br". Austral Ecology. 13 (4): 505–518. doi:10.1111/j.1442-9993.1988.tb00999.x. {{cite journal}}: Check |url= value (help)
  27. ^ Bryant CJ, Willis M (6–9 June 2006). Human Caused: Reducing the Impact of Deliberately Lit Bushfires (PDF). Brisbane: Australian Institute of Criminology. pp. 1–6. Retrieved 2007-06-29.{{cite conference}}: CS1 maint: date format (link)
  28. ^ Cheney P (1995), Bushfires – an integral part of Australia’s environment., Canberra: Australian Bureau of Statistics
  29. ^ NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service (2002). "Protected & Threatened Plants in the Cut-flower Industry - Management Plan 2002-2005" (PDF). NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service. Retrieved 2007-07-13.
  30. ^ Cavanagh, T (1982). "A Note on The Cultivation of Banksias in Europe in The 18th and 19th Centuries". Banksia Study Report. 6: 29–32. ISSN 0728-2893.
  31. ^ Dengate, J (2000). Attracting Birds to Your Garden. Sydney: New Holland Press. p. 20. ISBN 1-86436-411-4.
  32. ^ McCredie, T.A. (1985). "Variability in the resistance of Banksia L.f. species to Phytophthora cinnamomi Rands". Australian Journal of Botany. 3 (6): 629–637. doi:10.1071/BT9850629. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  33. ^ Eliot RW, Jones DL, Blake T (1985). Encyclopaedia of Australian Plants Suitable for Cultivation: Vol. 2. Port Melbourne: Lothian Press. p. 292. ISBN 0-85091-143-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  34. ^ Maclean, R (1995). "Propagation of Banksias". Banksia Study Report. 10: 6–16. ISSN 0728-2893.
  35. ^ a b George, Alex S. (1987). The Banksia Book (Second Edition). Kenthurst, New South Wales: Kangaroo Press (in association with the Society for Growing Australian Plants). ISBN 0-86417-006-8.
  36. ^ a b c d e f g h i Liber C (2004). "Update on Eastern Cultivars" (PDF). Banksia Study Group Newsletter. 5 (1). [ASGAP]: 3–5. ISSN 1444-285X. Retrieved 2007-06-23.
  37. ^ Sedgley M (1998). "The New Rural Industries: A handbook for Farmers and Investors". Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation. Retrieved 2007-06-28.
  38. ^ Eliot RW, Jones DL, Blake T (1995). Encyclopaedia of Australian Plants Suitable for Cultivation: Supplement No. 1. Port Melbourne: Lothian Press. pp. B-51. ISBN 0-85091-659-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  39. ^ Blake, T (1988). "Banksia Cultivars". Banksia Study Report. 7: 17–18. ISSN 0728-2893.

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