Battle of Warsaw (1705)

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For other battles with this name, see Battle of Warsaw.
Battle of Warsaw
Part of the Great Northern War

Anonymous plate of the battle of Warsaw
Date21 July 1705 (Swedish calendar)
31 July 1705 (N.S.)
Location
Outskirts of Warsaw, Poland
Result Decisive Swedish victory
Belligerents
Swedish Empire  Saxony
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
Commanders and leaders
Carl Nieroth Electorate of Saxony Otto Arnold von Paykull (POW)
Strength

2,000:[1]

1,940 cavalry,
60 infantry

9,500:[1]

6,000 Polish cavalry,
3,500 Saxon cavalry
Casualties and losses
144 killed,
148 wounded[2]		 1,000 killed, wounded and captured[2]

The Battle of Warsaw (also known as the Battle of Rakowitz or Rakowiec)[Note 1] was fought on 31 July 1705 (Gregorian calendar)[Note 2] near Warsaw, Poland, during the Great Northern War. The battle was part of a power struggle for the Polish–Lithuanian throne. It was fought between Augustus II the Strong who entered the Northern war as king over both Saxony and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, together with Denmark–Norway and Russia, and Stanisław Leszczyński, who eventually seized the Polish throne in 1704, with the support of the Swedish army, under Charles XII of Sweden. As a consequence, the Polish nobility picked sides; creating the Warsaw Confederation, in support of Leszczyński and Sweden, and the Sandomierz Confederation in support of Augustus and the allies, which resulted in the Polish civil war of 1704–1706.

In 1705 a parliament in Warsaw was starting peace negotiations between Poland and Sweden, and the coronation of Stanisław Leszczyński was being planned. Meanwhile the allies developed a grand strategy that envisioned a combined assault to crush the Swedish forces and restore Augustus II to the Polish throne. Accordingly, an allied army of up to 10,000 cavalry under the command of Otto Arnold von Paykull was sent towards Warsaw in order to interrupt the ongoing parliament. The Swedes likewise sent a contingent of their own, consisting of 2,000 cavalry, under the command of Carl Nieroth, to protect it. Paykull, encouraged by the fact that he heavily outnumbered the Swedes, took the initiative and attacked. He managed to cross the Vistula River with his army on 30 July, after a stubborn defense by a few Swedish squadrons, and reached the plains next to Rakowiec, directly west of Warsaw, on 31 July, where the two forces engaged in an open battle.

The allied left wing quickly collapsed and after a short but fierce fight so did the right and center. Paykull managed to rally some of his troops a few kilometers away, at the village of Odolany, where the fight was renewed. The Swedes again gained the upper hand and won the battle. They captured Paykull along with letters and other documents which informed the Swedes of the strategic intentions of the allies. The coronation of Stanisław Leszczyński was completed in early October. Peace between Poland and Sweden was established in November 1705, which allowed the Swedish king to focus his attention on the Russian threat near Grodno. The following campaign resulted in the Treaty of Altranstädt (1706), by which Augustus renounced both his claim to the Polish throne and his alliance with Peter the Great of Russia.

Background

See also: Polish civil war (1704–1706)
Charles XII, king of Sweden in his typical military uniform
Stanisław I Leszczyński, king of Poland 1704–1709
Augustus II, Elector of Saxony and previously king of Poland
Peter I, ruler of the Tsardom of Russia
Campaign of Grodno, the strategic view of late 1705

After having defeated the Danes at Humlebæk and the Russians at Narva in 1700, Charles XII of Sweden turned his attention towards his third enemy, Augustus II the Strong of Poland and Saxony, and defeated him in a fierce battle at the crossing of the Düna in 1701.[3] He subsequently launched an invasion of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in order to dethrone Augustus and install a candidate acceptable to Sweden. After early success, with the seizure of Warsaw, Kraków and Sandomierz[4] and the Battle of Kliszów, where Augustus once again saw himself defeated, a growing number of the Polish-Lithuanian magnates started to switch sides, in favor of Charles.[5]

Augustus' right to the throne of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth became deeply contested in 1704, after further Swedish success in the engagements at Pultusk and Toruń, as the Swedes proclaimed Stanisław Leszczyński as king with the support of the Warsaw Confederation of Polish nobles. In opposition to these developments, the Sandomierz Confederation was created by other nobles, in support of Augustus, thus starting the Polish civil war of 1704–1706.[4] Some smaller engagements at Poznań, Lwów, Warsaw and Poniec followed in 1704 as a consequence of Augustus' attempts to restore the situation to his favor.[6]

In 1705, the time had come for the coronation of Stanisław Leszczyński, as well as the negotiation of peace between Sweden and Poland. The Swedes were eager to increase the support for Leszczyński in order to strengthen their position in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The coalition forces, under Peter I of Russia and Augustus II, would not sit idle however, and planned a grand strategy of their own, mainly based upon the ideas of Johann Patkul and Otto Arnold von Paykull. In short, they would gather all available forces and crush the Swedish Army in Poland–Lithuania by a joint offensive.[4]

Prelude

After the Swedish reconquest of Kraków in early 1705, where 4,000 men under Swedish lieutenant Nils Stromberg forced between 3,000[7] and 4,000[8] Saxons to evacuate the city and retreat towards Lublin, the nobles of Kraków and Sandomierz renounced their support for Augustus II of Saxony in favor of Stanisław Leszczyński and started to gather in Warsaw for the session of parliament. Further support from the Ruthenian Voivodeship appeared from Lemberg[7] along with Józef Potocki and his 7,000 troops.[9] These movements were observed by the Saxon party which forced them to withdraw from the left bank of the Vistula River completely, along with all Polish troops, and march towards Brest in order to gain communications with the Russian army in Lithuania. This meant that negotiations for peace between Poland and Sweden as well as the coronation of Stanisław Leszczyński in Warsaw could safely go ahead. The parliamentary session was scheduled to start on 11 July.[7]

With the news of the upcoming event, Charles XII of Sweden, headquartered in Rawicz at the time, sent a contingent of troops from Gniezno on 6 July[Note 3] consisting of 2,000 cavalry under Carl Nieroth to serve for its protection.[10] Another 2,000 infantry[7] under Johan Valentin von Daldorff, of the Dala and Uppland Regiments were also ordered to depart on 29 July, from Kaliszkowice Ołobockie[Note 4] as reinforcements, as well as an escort for Stanisław Leszczyński; but they would not arrive at the Polish capital until 11 August, more than a week after the battle.[11]

Nieroth arrived at Warsaw just before 11 July and opened the parliamentary session according to schedule.[12] He established camp just south of the city next to the Vistula River.[13] Meanwhile the Saxons who had been forced out of Krakow and back to Brest departed for Warsaw in early July, uniting banners with between 5,000[14] and 6,000 Poles and Lithuanians,[15] led by Stanisław Chomętowski and Janusz Antoni Wiśniowiecki. The overall command of the force was assigned to Otto Arnold von Paykull whose orders from Augustus II were to disrupt the parliamentary session. Paykull's vanguard, under the command of Adam Śmigielski, soon arrived in the vicinity of Praga, on the opposite side of the Vistula from Warsaw, and attempted to cross the river on several occasions.[8]

Initial skirmishes

On 16 July, some 1,000 Poles crossed the river at Karczew[8] and attacked a Swedish guard consisting of 20 men. After defending themselves for some time, the Swedes were reinforced by 150 cavalrymen who forced the Poles to retire, leaving behind 30 dead. A further 200 men drowned as they went back over the Vistula River and four men ended up in captivity. Five days later, the Polish commander Stanisław Chomętowski arrived at Praga with 67 banners of Polish cavalry and 400 Saxons. He attempted to cross the Vistula to Warsaw in boats and other landing craft. He was repulsed, but the repeated attempts caused the nobility in Warsaw to scatter.[16] Paykull himself appeared with his full army by the end of the month and immediately overwhelmed two small Swedish reconnaissance units sent by Nieroth to operate on that side of the river.[17] Here some important intelligence was leaked, informing Paykull of the exact strength of the enemy, hardly 2,000 men, as well as the condition of the river.[18]

A council of war was held by Paykull, in which a plan was constructed that envisioned a joint strike on Nieroth's vulnerable cavalry before the arrival of further Swedish reinforcements.[19] Nieroth, being informed of their intentions on 28 July, split off two small units, with 186[Note 5] men in each, under the commands of Jon Stålhammar and Claes Bonde, in order to scout for the enemy in the vicinity of the Vistula river.[20] As the river proved to be shallower than what was usual at this time a year, some difficulties arose in the Swedish command in predicting where Paykull could and would commit.[21]

Warsaw and the Vistula River in 1723

The scouting party under Stålhammar was ordered to search 30 kilometres south-southeast towards Góra Kalwaria while Bonde scouted as far as Kazuń Nowy, 40 kilometres north-west of Warsaw. Thus more than 70 kilometres of the Vistula River were patrolled.[13] On 29 July, Paykull committed to attacking with his Saxons, Poles and Lithuanians.[18] He intended to cross the river some 30 kilometers north-west of Warsaw, near Zakroczym, which Bonde received intelligence of during the night of 29–30 July, while in Kazuń Nowy.[13] With a mere 26 men[17][Note 6] he engaged in a rapid march in order to investigate the matter before the arrival of his remaining 160.[13]

He arrived there in the morning and soon stumbled upon the vanguard of Paykull's army, consisting of 500 men who had seemingly just completed the crossing before the bulk of their army.[22] Despite being massively outnumbered, Bonde followed his instructions to prevent any attempt made my the coalition to cross the river. Almost immediately the small party attacked their enemies sword in hand, but after a desperate fight they were cut down to the last man. Subsequently, the remaining 160 Swedes arrived at the scene, followed the example of their leader, and attacked. By this time about half, or approximately 5,000 men, of the coalition forces were across and they managed to encircle the Swedes.[23] After a sharp battle the Swedes were repulsed with a loss of about 100[Note 7] men killed or captured.[20] However, one of the initial three squadrons of some 80 men managed to retreat back to Warsaw and notify Nieroth of the action.[17]

The seemingly foolish act at the beaches near Zakroczym had not been in vain as the coalition troops under Paykull suffered some lost momentum which allowed Nieroth more time to orginaize his troops for the forthcoming battle. The Polish military commander Stanisław Poniatowski, a supporter of Stanisław Leszczyński, wrote afterwards that – "The bravery and fearlessness which the Swedish officer [Bonde] had displayed, caused some terror to be struck into our enemies".[23] Otto Arnold von Paykull remained confident, and sent a courier to Augustus II informing him of how the Swedes were on the run and the parliament in Warsaw scattered. He added – "I hope to deliver the furious and wild Swedish lad to your Majesty within 14 days, dead or alive".[17]

Battle

French map of Warsaw, made in 1705 by Nicolas de Fer

When Nieroth was informed of Paykull's crossing on the afternoon of 30 July,[17] he resolved that he was not properly equipped for a siege,[1] and instead marched his army past Warsaw about five kilometers north-west of the city in order to receive the coalition forces there, in an open battle. It was already far into the evening by the time he arrived and as there was no sign of the enemy, he chose to go back and position his troops between Warsaw and Rakowiec, just west of the initial Swedish camp.[17] At sunrise, around 04:00 in the morning, on 31 July, he received intelligence that Paykull was marching at him along the road from Błonie, west of Warsaw. Soon afterwards, Nieroth drew his army up in battle order and marched towards Wola to face the advancing enemy.[24]

Swedish cavalry wedge formation according to the regulations of 1707

Swedish forces

The Swedish force under the command of Nieroth consisted of between 1,800[25] and 2,000 men in three regiments, divided into a total of 24 squadrons with one company of infantry.[26] The Swedish regiments were positioned, from left to right: 800 men from the Östergötland Cavalry Regiment, 400 men from the Upplands tremännings Cavalry Regiment (also known as Kruse's Cavalry Regiment) and 740 men from the Småland Cavalry Regiment[24] under the commands of Jacob Burensköld, Carl Nieroth and Carl Gustaf Kruse, respectively.[27] A company of 60[Note 8] infantry from the Skaraborg Infantry Regiment under captain Sven Kafle had also arrived the day before[28] and took position on the far right.[16]

Allied forces

The Saxon–Polish–Lithuanians were between 8,000[29] and 10,000 men strong under the overall command of Otto Arnold von Paykull. The Saxons were positioned in the center with the Lithuanians to their left and the Poles to their right.[24] The Saxon force included some 3,500 men[1][Note 9] in 12 different regiments, totaling 34 squadrons.[27]

The first Saxon line, under the personal command of Paykull with the generals Daniel Schulenburg and Saint Paul assisting, included, in order from left to right;[24] the Life Guard (Leib) Dragoon Regiment,[30] the Milkau Dragoon Regiment,[30] the Gersdorff Cuirassier Regiment,[30] the Steinau Cuirassier Regiment,[30] and the Life Guard (Leib) Cuirassier Regiment.[30] Each regiment had three squadrons of 250 men.[31] Furthest to the right was the Garde du Corps Cavalry Regiment[30] with four squadrons of 500 men.[31]

The second Saxon line included, in order from left to right; the Schulenburg Dragoon Regiment,[30] the Goltz Dragoon Regiment,[30] the Flemming's Cuirassiers,[31][Note 10] the Crown Prince (Kurprinz) Cuirassier Regiment,[30] the Queen's (Königin) Cuirassier Regiment[30] and the Brause Dragoon Regiment.[30] Each with three squadrons of 240 men.[31]

The Saxon reserve line consisted of a group of handpicked Cuirassiers to the left, three squadrons of 200 men each;[31] and the Eichstadt Cuirassier Regiment[30] to the right, three squadrons each of 225[Note 11] men.[24]

The Poles and Lithuanians fielded between 5,000[14] and 6,000 men.[1] The Poles with around 2,600 men, were positioned on the right wing with 40 banners (each banner was about 65 men) and were commanded by Stanisław Chomętowski, Stanisław Ernest Denhoff and Felicjana Czermińskiego.[24] The Lithuanians on the left wing consisted of some 2,300[14] to 3,300 men[24] in 35[14] to 50 banners (each banner with about 65 men) and were commanded by Stanisław Mateusz Rzewuski and Janusz Antoni Wiśniowiecki.[24]

Rakowiec

The battle of Warsaw, 1705. Published in the Theatrum Europaeum, with an Order of battle for both armies

Both armies had some difficulties in marching towards each other, as high grain covered much of the field.[1] Furthermore, the unusually hot and dry summer contributed to large dust clouds being raised, as strong western winds swept over their heads. The Swedes in particular struggled, with the wind in their faces.[24] After they had marched 2.5 kilometers the armies sighted each other and advanced to battle. Both armies soon acknowledged the great disparity in numbers between them. The Saxon–Polish–Lithuanian force was, even with being formed up in two lines, each three man deep, and with a reserve line behind, double the width of that of the Swedes, who in turn had no reserve and were formed in only one line, no more than two men deep.[32]

Paykull took advantage of the situation and quickly ordered his wings to stretch out further before impact, in an attempt to completely encirle the Swedes. The commanders of each Swedish regiment drew further out to the sides themselves, in order to somewhat match the width of their opponents lines. This action caused the Swedish line to split in two and left an opening in the center between the Östgöta and the Uppland cavalry. Soon afterwards the general of the Östgöta cavalry (left wing), Burensköld, sent Nieroth an urgent plea for reinforcements[32] as his regiment alone was about to face more than half, around 5,000, of the enemy force.[33] Nieroth, who was with the Uppland and Småland regiments further to the right, and heavily outnumbered himself, had no choice but to decline the request.[32]

At around 08:00 in the morning, the two sides collided, just north of the village of Rakowiec, west of Warsaw.[1] After enduring a volley from their enemies the Swedes charged, sword in hand, along the whole front in their typical "Carolean formations".[33] As the Swedes charged, Paykull, who had acknowledged the split in the Swedish center, quickly ordered six squadrons of the Life Guard Dragoons, Milkau Dragoons and Gersdorff Cuirassiers to exploit the opening and hit the Uppland regiment in their left flank, as they were to be engaged in the front as well. This caused confusion among the four squadrons furthest to the left of the Uppland Regiment, which to some extent fell into disorder and lost three standards.[34]

Simultaneously, the Saxon squadrons furthest to the left, along with the Lithuanian cavalry, almost immediately collapsed at the impact of the remaining squadrons of the Uppland Regiment that had not been hit in the flank, as well as the Småland Regiment, and routed, briskly pursued by Nieroth and the other half of the Uppland Regiment.[35] Some Lithuanians at the end of the wing, whose banners extended further than the width of the Swedish line, had initially procceeded with the flanking maneuver, but were soon also driven off as the Småland Regiment turned its' attention towards them next[34] pursuing and harassing them for as far as 20 kilometers in a northerly direction.[33]

As the Uppland and Småland Regiments collided with their enemies on the Swedish right wing, the left wing under Burensköld with his Östgöta Regiment, simultaneously charged home into the Saxons opposing them. After a short, but seemingly fierce fight, the first Saxon line was forced to quit, hence dragging the second line with them in the retreat.[26] The Poles, being furthest out on the wing where the Swedish line did not extend, had during this time managed to partially encircle the Swedes, and in turn started to attack their flank and rear as they pursued the Saxons. This gave the Saxons enough breathing room to rally some of their troops and counterattack. The Swedish Östgöta Regiment was then forced to split their squadrons in two by leaving a few to halt the Poles in the rear, with the others facing the counter-attacking Saxons to their front.[34]

As the rest of the Saxon–Polish–Lithuanian lines in the center and left wing had already been beaten by this time and were now pursued, the Östgöta Regiment was soon reinforced by the four Swedish squadrons of the Uppland Regiment under Carl Philip Sack that had initially been in the center and attacked in the flank by six Saxon squadrons. These had managed to rally, and subsequently beat them back in return, and now rushed to the aid of the vulnerable Östgöta Regiment along with the Skaraborg Regiment under Sven Kafle, causing the Poles and Saxons to retreat once more, unable to handle the pressure.[36]

Odolany

Jacob Burensköld, lieutenant–colonel of the Östergötland Cavalry Regiment, instrumental to the Swedish victory

As the Swedes of the Östgöta Regiment reached the village of Wola in their pursuit for the Saxons, they discovered that Paykull had reorganized his forces at the nearby village of Odolany. Some time was spent resting the exhausted horses and regrouping the available squadrons before recommencing the attack. Soon the other four squadrons of the Uppland Regiment arrived,[37] although very depleted after the fighting at Rakowiec. Paykull had positioned his Saxon troops very advantageously, with the left flank protected by a hedge towards Odolany; and on the right a large force of Poles,[26] with two hidden Saxon squadrons of the Garde du Corps, ready to fall upon the rear of the Swedes.[37] All of his Saxon squadrons were present, except for the six that he had committed to attack the middle of the Swedish army in the previous fight.[38] He was further encouraged by the fact that his troops outnumbered the Swedes four to one, even without reckoning the Poles on the right, and so envisioned himself able to first crush the few Swedes in front of him and subsequently turn against the rest of the Swedish force, for the time being occupied with chasing the Lithuanians.[26]

Having disposed his troops, with the Uppland Regiment on the left, Burensköld commenced his attack. As the Swedes charged forward, the two hidden Saxon squadrons fell onto the rear of their left flank, causing some disorder.[39] However, the Saxon left wing, where Paykull remained, collapsed even before impact, and ran.[26] Two Swedish squadrons were then sent to assist in the ongoing fight, as the rest pursued the fleeing enemy. The order at the left wing was soon restored, after some fierce fighting, as the 60 infantrymen from the Skaraborg Regiment arrived in time to give a strong volley from their muskets to end the struggle completely. Paykull was captured as the Swedes pursued the fleeing enemy for about five kilometers.[39] He had fallen into a ditch and was about to be killed by two Swedish cavalrymen before a third, Magnus Rydberg, intervened.[40] The Swedes under Burensköld subsequently called off the pursuit, being unaware of the course of the rest of the battle, and returned towards Warsaw.[39]

End of the battle

The Swedes started to move their forces towards Warsaw in the afternoon, after having pursued their enemies for many kilometers in different directions. Some Poles who had crossed the Vistula from Praga during the battle in order to loot, were quickly chased back over the river by the Småland Regiment, where 300[41] to 500 of them drowned. The battle had lasted for six hours, from 08:00 in the morning to 2:00 in the afternoon.[42]

123 Saxons and 17 Poles had been captured, including Paykull.[31] Some 300[39] to 500 Saxons had been killed and almost as many Poles and Lithuanians.[18] In total, the allies had suffered between 1,000[2] and 2,000 men dead, wounded and captured in the battle.[43] The Swedes had substained 144 men killed, 143 wounded and five men captured.[44][Note 12] A large number of horses were also lost. In just the Östgöta Regiment, 178 horses were dead and 70 wounded. This resulted in the regiment being only able to field about 550 men, compared with the 800 it had started the day with; the rest were dead, wounded, without horses or scattered.[45]

It is clear that Paykull had never received orders from Augustus II the Strong that encouraged him to fight the Swedes in a battle, but was only to interrupt the coronation of Stanisław Leszczyński. In this he initially succeeded, as many of the noblemen in Warsaw fled at his presence by the Vistula River, and would have remained scattered as long as he posed a threat with his army. It is logical to think that the size of his army, at least 8,000 men,[46] and the fact that the smaller Swedish force awaited reinforcements,[19] made him eager to seek battle with them while they were heavily outnumbered.[46]

Aftermath

See also: Campaign of Grodno
The Treaty of Altranstädt, 1706

The scattered Polish noblemen received notice of the victory and eventually returned in order to procceed with the coronation of Stanisław Leszczyński and the declaration of peace between Sweden and Poland.[47] Meanhwile, the allies obtained reinforcements of about 1,000 Russians and once again threatened to disrupt the parliament, until the two Swedish infantry regiments under Johan Valentin von Daldorff finally arrived,[48] on 11 August,[11] with Stanisław Leszczyński and the Swedish ambassadors.[48] This put an end to the Allies' ambitions, forcing them to withdraw towards Lithuania and unite with the Russian Army stationed there.[47]

The Swedish main army at Rawicz, under Charles XII, struck camp at 8 August and marched towards Krotoszyn, where the captured Otto Arnold von Paykull was likewise taken under strict military surveillance, for a visitation with the king.[49] Some letters and documents that Paykull had carried with him during the battle, which he had vainly thrown away before his imminent capture, were brought with him to Krotoszyn.[40] The documents informed Charles of a greater allied plan, where the Tsar, Peter the Great of Russia, intended to march into Warsaw on 30 August at the head of 40,000 men and put an end to the parliament.[50] This would, they thought, provoke Charles XII to take action and march with the Swedish army to Warsaw, where he would subsequently find himself surrounded by Johann Matthias von der Schulenburg[51] and his 20,000 men, who were assembling in Saxony,[52] in order to move into Poland and attack the Swedes in the rear. Charles, who had for long sought a decisive battle with the coalition forces, indicated no sign of panic upon receiving word of this, instead he simply stated to his ministers – "I wish the enemy may keep their word." On 10 August, he once again struck camp and commenced a rapid march with his army towards Błonie, close to Warsaw, where he arrived on 17 August.[51] He left General Carl Gustaf Rehnskiöld with 10,000 men at Poznań to guard against the main Saxon army under Schulenburg which threatened to enter the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.[53]

The execution of von Paykull in Stockholm, 1707

The Russian Tsar abandoned his plans after seeing how two armies of the allies had already suffered defeat at the hands of the Swedes; the one under Boris Sheremetev that faced Adam Ludwig Lewenhaupt in Courland, during the Battle of Gemauerthof, and now at the battle at Warsaw, between Paykull and Nieroth. As he no longer dared to fully commit in Poland,[54] he decided to instead let his main army under Georg Benedict Ogilvy await the Swedes behind the strongly fortified defenses of Grodno, in Lithuania. He would attempt to lure Charles XII there, while the Saxon army under Schulenburg would enter Poland from the west, and attack him in the rear. These developments would result in the Campaign of Grodno.[55]

The coronation of Stanisław Leszczyński, as Stanisław I of Poland, was completed on 4 October, with no further complications from the allies.[56] After some smaller skirmishes outside, or near, Warsaw, among them an attempt made by the allies to destroy the recently Swedish–constructed brige connecting Warsaw and Praga,[57] the peace between Sweden and Poland was finally established on 28 November.[58] These developments allowed Charles to break camp at 9 January 1706 and march towards the Russians at Grodo, where he partly encircled the city and starved them out.[59] Meanwhile, the Saxon army under Schulenburg was defeated by Rehnskiöld at the Battle of Fraustadt. This would result in a Swedish invasion of Saxony and the Treaty of Altranstädt (1706) where Augustus had to renounce all his claims to the Polish throne.[60]

Paykull, the captured allied general, was shipped to Sweden and put on trial in Stockholm, after which he was sentenced to death by decapitation, and executed on 14 February 1707. The reason behind the execution was that Paykull was born in Swedish Livonia, and as such was seen as a Swedish subject by the law; he was thus considered a traitor to the nation for having taken up arms against it.[61]

See also

Sources

Notes

  1. ^ Rakowiec later became part of the Ochota district of Warsaw.
  2. ^ Unless otherwise stated, this article uses dates from the Gregorian calendar (new style), in preference to the Swedish or the Julian calendar (old style) which were used simultaneously.
  3. ^ The date when the Östergötland Cavalry Regiment departed (Stenhammar 1918, p. 70–72).
  4. ^ The date and place from where the Dalarna Regiment departed (Philström 1902, p. 147).
  5. ^ Numbers vary from 180 (Stenhammar 1918, p. 70) to 200 (Sjögren 1881, p. 145).
  6. ^ Other sources say 20 (Stenhammar 1918, p. 70) and even 10 (Taylor 1705, p. 332).
  7. ^ Other sources say 90 killed (Stenhammar 1918, p. 71).
  8. ^ Other sources say 90 (Sjögren 1881, p. 147).
  9. ^ The Saxon force is usually estimated to have been between 3,000 (Imhof & Schönleben 1719, p. 101) and 4,000 men (Stenhammar 1918, p. 72).
  10. ^ Flemming's Dragoons, according to Kling and Sjöström. (Kling & Sjöström 2015, p. 210).
  11. ^ 250 according to L. Visocki-Hochmuth. (Visocki-Hochmuths 1903, p. 209).
  12. ^ Or 124 killed and a little over 129 wounded (Adlerfelt 1740, pp. 148–149), or 156 killed or missing and 148 wounded (Nordberg 1745, p. 428).

Footnotes

  1. ^ a b c d e f g Kling & Sjöström 2015, p. 200.
  2. ^ a b c Taylor 1705, p. 298.
  3. ^ Dorrell 2009, pp. 11–12.
  4. ^ a b c Kling & Sjöström 2015, pp. 198–199.
  5. ^ Dorrell 2009, p. 15.
  6. ^ Sundberg 2010, pp. 226–227.
  7. ^ a b c d Svensson 2001, p. 83.
  8. ^ a b c Sjögren 1881, p. 144.
  9. ^ Sjöström 2009, p. 60.
  10. ^ Stenhammar 1918, pp. 70–72.
  11. ^ a b Philström 1902, p. 147.
  12. ^ Nordberg 1745, p. 424.
  13. ^ a b c d Stenhammar 1918, p. 70.
  14. ^ a b c d Imhof & Schönleben 1719, p. 212.
  15. ^ Adlerfelt 1740, p. 144.
  16. ^ a b Nordberg 1745, p. 425.
  17. ^ a b c d e f Sjögren 1881, p. 145.
  18. ^ a b c Taylor 1705, p. 334.
  19. ^ a b Adlerfelt 1740, pp. 144–145.
  20. ^ a b Taylor 1705, p. 332.
  21. ^ Grimberg & Uddgren 1914, p. 228.
  22. ^ Grimberg & Uddgren 1914, p. 229.
  23. ^ a b Stenhammar 1918, p. 71.
  24. ^ a b c d e f g h i Stenhammar 1918, p. 72.
  25. ^ Stålhammar 1912, p. 101.
  26. ^ a b c d e Taylor 1705, p. 335.
  27. ^ a b Adlerfelt 1740, p. 146.
  28. ^ Grimberg & Uddgren 1914, p. 230.
  29. ^ Imhof & Schönleben 1719, p. 213.
  30. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Kling & Sjöström 2015, p. 210.
  31. ^ a b c d e f Visocki-Hochmuths 1903, p. 209.
  32. ^ a b c Stenhammar 1918, pp. 72–73.
  33. ^ a b c Grimberg & Uddgren 1914, p. 231.
  34. ^ a b c Sjögren 1881, p. 146.
  35. ^ Adlerfelt 1740, p. 147.
  36. ^ Adlerfelt 1740, pp. 147–148.
  37. ^ a b Grimberg & Uddgren 1914, p. 232.
  38. ^ Taylor 1705, p. 336.
  39. ^ a b c d Stenhammar 1918, p. 74.
  40. ^ a b Sjögren 1881, p. 147.
  41. ^ Stålhammar 1912, p. 102.
  42. ^ Nordberg 1745, p. 428.
  43. ^ Fryxell 1868, p. 327.
  44. ^ Visocki-Hochmuths 1903, p. 210.
  45. ^ Stenhammar 1918, pp. 75–76.
  46. ^ a b Imhof & Schönleben 1719, pp. 212–213.
  47. ^ a b Adlerfelt 1740, p. 149.
  48. ^ a b Nordberg 1745, p. 429.
  49. ^ Sjögren 1881, pp. 147–148.
  50. ^ Sjögren 1881, p. 148.
  51. ^ a b Adlerfelt 1740, p. 151.
  52. ^ Kling & Sjöström 2015, p. 199.
  53. ^ Sjöström 2009, p. 75.
  54. ^ Fant 1804, p. 52.
  55. ^ Sjöström 2009, pp. 70–72.
  56. ^ Sjöström 2009, p. 84.
  57. ^ Grimberg & Uddgren 1914, pp. 233–236.
  58. ^ Sjöström 2009, p. 85.
  59. ^ Sjöström 2009, pp. 86–87.
  60. ^ Sjöström 2009, p. 280.
  61. ^ Sjögren 1881, pp. 148–156.

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