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This article is on the political-religious concept of dominionism. See Dominion (disambiguation) for other meanings of the word dominion

Template:Dominionism Dominionism describes a movement among socially conservative Christians to gain influence or control over secular civil government through political action — seeking either a nation governed by Christians or a nation governed by a Christian understanding of biblical law. The use and application of this terminology is a matter of controversy.[1][2][3][4][5]

Origin of the term

The term "dominionism" originated in the late 1980s to describe the activities of portions of the Christian Right in the United States;[1] but has been used to discuss similar trends in Canada, and several European countries. Some writers argue that the most militant theocratic forms of "dominionism" have had a direct influence upon the more moderate Christian Right;[3][6] and that dominionism in general raises issues regarding separation of church and state in the United States.[4][5]

Bruce Barron observes "in the context of American evangelical efforts to penetrate and transform public life, the distinguishing mark of a dominionist is a commitment to defining and carrying out an approach to building society that is self-consciously defined as exclusively Christian, and dependent specifically on the work of Christians, rather than based on a broader consensus" [2] (p. 14, italics in original). According to Barron, the "idea of Christian dominion, though with less emphasis on biblical law, has been echoed within the Charismatic movement, that segment of American Christianity identified by its free-spirited, demonstrative worship and its practice of spiritual gifts such as tongue speaking and prophecy." For example, well-known Charismatic preacher Pat Robertson reaches millions of viewers weekly through his "700 Club" television program. "Robertson's explicit emphasis on the need to restore Christians to leadership roles in American society mirrors what" Barron called, "a dominionist impulse in contemporary evangelicalism" [2] (p. 12).

Popularization of the term

The term has been expanded in the popular press to describe a wide range of politically active Christians,[7] in some cases being substituted as a near-equivalent for the Christian right as a whole,[8] or even used inclusively with regard to all Right wing politics.[9] Writers such as Anthony Williams and Stanley Kurtz deny that dominionism is widely influential in American politics, dismissing the suggestion as "leftish fantasies,"[10] "conspiratorial nonsense," "political paranoia," and "guilt by association".[11] The terms "dominionist" or "dominionism" are rarely used for self-description by groups so labeled.

Dominionism and the culture war

The movement emerged in the late 1970s and 1980s, sparked in part by a series of books and films featuring Francis A. Schaeffer, a Presbyterian pastor and evangelist, popular Evangelical apologist, and founder of L'Abri, a Christian community in Switzerland. His book, film and lecture series, "Whatever Happened to the Human Race?", co-authored with C. Everett Koop, toured Christian colleges and churches in the early 1980s. Panels of ethicists and scholars presented the films, fielding questions from audiences, raising the alarm that, through Christian inattention, Western Civilization had slipped its Judeo-Christian moorings, drifting into a "post-Christian era", under the sway of a secular civil religion that Schaeffer called "secular humanism". The landmark 1972 U.S. Supreme Court decision Roe v Wade served as Schaeffer's iconic portrait of the radical cheapening of human life which he predicted must accompany this cultural shift, producing a culture increasingly bent on self-destruction. His tract, "A Christian Manifesto" called upon Christians to directly resist these influences, in the public sphere.

Frederick Clarkson, Sara Diamond, and Chip Berlet say that Schaeffer's philosophically, theologically and politically energized evangelicalism influenced a diverse spectrum of theological conservatives: Jerry Falwell, Timothy LaHaye, John W. Whitehead, and others. Although they represent different theological and political ideas, Dominionists assert a Christian duty to take "control of a sinful secular society", according to Berlet[12].

The "Dominionism" label became more widely known following the U.S. presidential election, 2004, as the media attributed Republican wins to Evangelical voters in Red states who were guided in their voting by moral issues.[13]

Dominion

The dominionist interpretation sees adherents as heeding a command from God to all humankind to subject the world to the rule of the Word of God. The terminology of dominionism, and the broad concept of the trend described by critics, has been taken from the King James Version of the Bible, Genesis 1:26

And God said, Let us make man in our image, after our likeness: and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth.

Christians typically interpret this verse as meaning that God gave humankind responsibility over the Earth, but Dominionists infer a mandate for Christian stewardship in civil affairs.

Range of Dominionist ideas

Francis Schaeffer is sometimes called one of the founders of the Christian Right movement, which some have labeled a Dominionist movement. Schaeffer was influenced by the writings of R. J. Rushdoony, the intellectual founder of Christian Reconstructionism, a postmillennialist form of Theocratic Dominionism. Schaeffer and Rushdoony read each others' writings, and even met. Schaeffer led a study of Rushdoony's writings at Schaeffer's institute in Switzerland. Schaeffer and other premillennialists picked up themes of dominionism from the postmillennialist Rushdoony, and adapted them to premillennial theology. Some commentators emphasize Schaeffer's differences with Christian Reconstructionism, and with R.J. Rushdoony. A systematic difference was his rejection of theocracy. In the book, A Christian Manifesto, Schaeffer writes, "There is no New Testament basis for a linking of church and state until Christ, the King returns." Critical writers emphasize the similarities and overlapping influence of Schaeffer and the Reconstructionists, on the formation of the Christian Right.

Schaeffer, like the theonomists, acknowledges indebtedness to some of the same Calvinist philosophers and theologians, including Cornelius Van Til. Van Til himself disavowed entanglement of his work with political movements like these, and Schaeffer never described himself as a theonomist. Irving Hexham, the Canadian sociologist of religion, questions whether scholars have adequately distinguished Schaeffer's views from theonomy, in describing both as "dominionism".[14].

According to Frederick Clarkson the terms "soft" and "hard" Dominionism are "used by outside observers to understand a complex yet vitally important trend. So for people trying to figure out if a conservative politician, organization, or religious leader is "dominionist," I notice three characteristics that bridge both the hard and the soft kind".[15] Writes Clarkson:

  • "Dominionists celebrate Christian nationalism, in that they believe that the United States once was, and should once again be, a Christian nation. In this way, they deny the Enlightenment roots of American democracy."
  • "Dominionists promote religious supremacy, insofar as they generally do not respect the equality of other religions, or even other versions of Christianity."
  • "Dominionists endorse theocratic visions, insofar as they believe that the Ten Commandments, or "biblical law," should be the foundation of American law, and that the U.S. Constitution should be seen as a vehicle for implementing Biblical principles."[15]

Influence on the Christian Right

Within the Christian Right, concern over social, cultural, and political issues such as abortion, euthanasia, same-sex marriage, sympathy for Israel sometimes expressed as Christian Zionism, the banning of teacher-led prayer in the public schools, and the reduction of overtly fundamentalist Christian perspectives in the public square has prompted participation in elections since the 1970s. Activists and intellectuals in the Christian Right work in a coalition of religious conservatives, operating through the Republican Party to promote their influence.

Dominionism within the Christian Right grows out of theological challenges posed by Schaeffer and Rousas John Rushdoony, founder of Christian Reconstructionism. For Rushdoony, the idea of dominion drawn from Genesis implied a form of Christian theocracy or, more accurately, a theonomy. For example, he wrote that:

The purpose of Christ's coming was in terms of the creation mandate. . . . The redeemed are called to the original purpose of man, to exercise dominion under God, to be covenant-keepers, and to fulfil "the righteousness of the law" (Rom. 8:4). . . . Man is summoned to create the society God requires.[16]

Elsewhere he wrote:

The man who is being progressively sanctified will inescapably sanctify his home, school, politics, economics, science, and all things else by understanding and interpreting all things in terms of the word of God and by bringing all things under the dominion of Christ the King.[17]

According to sociologist and professor of religion William Martin[2], author of With God on Our Side:

"It is difficult to assess the influence of Reconstructionist thought with any accuracy. Because it is so genuinely radical, most leaders of the Religious Right are careful to distance themselves from it. At the same time, it clearly holds some appeal for many of them. One undoubtedly spoke for others when he confessed, 'Though we hide their books under the bed, we read them just the same.' In addition, several key leaders have acknowledged an intellectual debt to the theonomists. Jerry Falwell and D. James Kennedy have endorsed Reconstructionist books. Rushdoony has appeared on Kennedy's television program and the 700 Club several times. Pat Robertson makes frequent use of 'dominion' language; his book, The Secret Kingdom, has often been cited for its theonomy elements; and pluralists were made uncomfortable when, during his presidential campaign, he said he 'would only bring Christians and Jews into the government,' as well as when he later wrote, 'There will never be world peace until God's house and God's people are given their rightful place of leadership at the top of the world.' And Jay Grimstead, who leads the Coalition on Revival, which brings Reconstructionists together with more mainstream evangelicals, has said, 'I don't call myself [a Reconstructionist],' but 'A lot of us are coming to realize that the Bible is God's standard of morality . . . in all points of history . . . and for all societies, Christian and non-Christian alike. . . . It so happens that Rushdoony, Bahnsen, and North understood that sooner.' He added, 'There are a lot of us floating around in Christian leadership James Kennedy is one of them-who don't go all the way with the theonomy thing, but who want to rebuild America based on the Bible.'"[6](p. 354)

Political groups and individuals that worry about how, and to what extent, dominionism influences the Christian Right include People for the American Way, Americans United for Separation of Church and State, Interfaith Alliance, and the Freedom From Religion Foundation, Joan Bokaer[3] and Katherine Yurica [4].

In their report Funding the Culture Wars[18] the National Committee for Responsive Philanthropy[19] lists the Family Research Council, the Christian Coalition and Focus on the Family as prominent organizations that fund the activities of the Christian Right. TheocracyWatch lists all three as "dominionist" organizations.[20] [21]

Dominionism debated

Frederick Clarkson, the author of Eternal Hostility: The Struggle Between Theocracy and Democracy, is fearful that as Dominionism grows, democracy and pluralism will be increasingly under attack.

Former New York Times reporter Chris Hedges[22] and Clarkson, consider dominionism one of the defining issues of the culture wars.[23]

During the administration of George W. Bush, a few critics of the Dominionist idea have sometimes claimed the trend is representative of all Christians of a Republican or politically conservative orientation. Hedges has equated the sermons of James Dobson to the rhetoric used in the former Yugoslavia to justify the slaughter of Muslims by Serbian Christians, and he has characterized federally-funded Christian charities as "parallel indoctrination systems." [citation needed]

According to the Washington Times, some "liberal" critics of dominionism express "hostility toward Christian conservatives."[24]

Stanley Kurtz, in the National Review online, complained that discussion about Dominionism (at a conference in New York and in articles in Harper's Magazine) often linked average Christian evangelicals with extremism, such as views found at the fringes of the very small movement known as Christian Reconstructionism:

The notion that conservative Christians want to reinstitute slavery and rule by genocide is not just crazy, it’s downright dangerous. The most disturbing part of the Harper’s cover story (the one by Chris Hedges) was the attempt to link Christian conservatives with Hitler and fascism. Once we acknowledge the similarity between conservative Christians and fascists, Hedges appears to suggest, we can confront Christian evil by setting aside 'the old polite rules of democracy.' So wild conspiracy theories and visions of genocide are really excuses for the Left to disregard the rules of democracy and defeat conservative Christians — by any means necessary. [5]

One conference speaker criticized by Kurtz is Katherine Yurica, who has written about the rise of Dominionism as a theocratic tendency in the Christian Right.[6][7] Yurica responded to Kurtz, saying she has not used the term "Christian Fascism" in her writings.[8] Yurica has noted fascistic tendencies in Christian Right Dominionism, but she does not consider the Christian Right to be "Christian."

Christian conservatives are not the only people who suggest that some criticism of dominionism is hyperbolic and some progressive researchers warns of that tendency. [25] For example, two progressive websites that challenge the Christian Right but urge respectful rhetoric are Talk to Action and Campaign to Defend the Constitution.

Sara Diamond warns that while dominionism has influenced the Christian Right, liberals too often use hyperbolic language to describe the activities and goals of the Christian Right.[9]

Generic or "soft" dominionism

Within the various Christian Right social and political movements, there are those that claim that "America is a Christian nation." In her book, Michelle Goldberg called this tendency "Christian Nationalism," and this tendency represents a form of generic or "soft" dominionism.

Critics[26] argue the claim that the United States is a Christian nation is of questionable historic validity (often pointing out the deist beliefs of various founding fathers -- Thomas Jefferson's[10] in particular) , is ethnocentric, and reduces secularists and members of other religions (such as Judaism, Islam, and Hinduism) to second-class status. They cite the Treaty with Tripoli (1796) passed by the United States Senate, which stated that the United States government "is not in any sense founded on the Christian religion,"[11] and George Washington's letter to Moses Seixas, in which Washington defended religious freedom for Jews ("For happily, the government of the United States, which gives to bigotry no sanction, to persecution no assistance"[12]).

Theocratic or "hard" dominionism

Main article: Dominion theology

The terms Theocratic Dominionism or Hard Dominionism, are used by some to describe forms of Dominionism which evidently envision, and work toward, a future in which all the institutions of society will be governed by the principles of their form of Christian faith.

Hard Dominionism is primarily associated with certain Calvinists who hold a postmillennialist eschatology. John Calvin's Geneva, and the Puritans are considered antecedents of this strain. Some Christians who speak of America as a Christian Nation are referring to this theocratic ideal, such as Kevin Clauson of the National Reform Association.

America and other nations can be Christian if they adopt biblical laws in state, church, family, and all other entities and associations. We cannot trust man (individually or collectively); we must trust God and His immutable law. If civil magistrates will not apply the Old Testament law, then what will they apply? The law of man. If we will not be ruled by God, we will be ruled by tyrants. (see p. 67, God and Politics: Four Views on the Reformation of Civil Government, ed. Gary Scott Smith (Phillipsburg, NJ: Presbyterian and Reformed, 1989).

Several small movements fit this description, the influence of one of which began to be noticed in the 1970s, called Christian Reconstructionism. Although the number of ideologically self-conscious advocates is small, this movement, by virtue of the blunt consistency of its rhetoric, has exercised influence far out of proportion to the number of self-identifying adherents. [13]

In recent years, another type of Dominionism has developed among premillennialist Evangelicals, primarily charismatics. This version is essentially pessimistic concerning general society. Christian activism is seen as a sort of holding action against the inevitable coming of the Antichrist. This group differs from the first in key areas such as support for Israel. (The conservative television personality Pat Robertson is usually considered an example of this second type.[14])

Christian Reconstructionism

Main article: Christian Reconstructionism

The flag-ship institution of Christian Reconstructionism is the Chalcedon Foundation, founded by R.J. Rushdoony. From their website, Chalcedon answers critics who characterize them as an orchestrator of a clandestine, politically motivated conspiracy:

Our critics sometimes imply or state outright that we are engaged in a subtle, covert attempt to capture conservative, right-wing politics in order to gain political power, which we will then use to "spring" Biblical law on our nation. This is flatly false. We do not believe that politics or the state are a chief sphere of dominion.

Critics note that politics is the chief sphere in which Reconstructionism's influence is perceived, and consequently feel justified in characterizing it as primarily political, in fact even if not in ideal theory. For instance, some critics go so far as to point to a phrase from Chalcedon's website, "'Proclaiming the Authority of God’s Word Over Every Area of Life and Thought.' Catch the vision. . ." charging that phrases such as this demonstrate nefarious motives on behalf of the Chalcedon Foundation. Critics such as Frederick Clarkson identify it as totalitarian, comparable to other right-wing and political movements inspired by religious fundamentalism. Proponents of Reconstructionism claim that, on the contrary, they stand in opposition to tyranny:

The great problem with modern politics is that it is used as an instrument of social change. We at Chalcedon passionately oppose this. The role of the state is in essence to defend and protect, in the words of the early American Republic, life, liberty, and property. It is to reward the externally obedient by protecting them from the externally disobedient (Romans 13:1-7). Its role is not to make men virtuous; we have a name for civil governments that attempt to create a virtuous society: totalitarian. [15]

Some theocratic Dominionists argue that the United States was originally envisioned as a society based on Biblical law. [16] They also contend that theonomy is not the same thing as Erastianism or Papalism.

The best form [of government] was theocracy. . .which meant separate but parallel civil and ecclesiastical organizations framed on the evidence of the Scriptures. Church and state. . .were of the same genus, "order," with the same author, "God," and the same end, "God's glory." On the level of species the two diverged. Here the end of the church was salvation of souls while that of the state was the preservation of society in justice.[27]

Christianism

In recent years, some authors have used the terms "Christianism" or "Christianist" in place of "Dominionism."

The term "Christianist" is referred to as early as 1992 in a book Europe. La voie romaine by Rémi Brague. In an essay from November, 2004 by Gianni Valente in the English version of the Italy based 30 Days in the Church and the world, Valente credits Professor Brague, Professor of Arabic philosophy at the Sorbonne with the terminology distinction.

"Christianist" was also used by Ruth Walker on May 20, 2005 Christian Science Monitor providing a separate term for political Christians in an article entitled "Onward, Christianist Soldiers?".

According to Andrew Sullivan, "The term 'people of faith' has been co-opted almost entirely in our (political) discourse by those who see Christianity as compatible with only one political party, the Republicans, and believe that their religious doctrines should determine public policy for everyone. So let me suggest that we take back the word Christian while giving the religious right a new adjective: Christianist."[28] The word Christianism evolved in western media outlets, particularly liberal-oriented blogs,[29][30][31] as an analogue to the term "Islamist." As Andrew Sullivan said, "Christianism is an ideology, politics, an ism. The distinction between Christian and Christianist echoes the distinction we make between Muslim and Islamist. Muslims are those who follow Islam. Islamists are those who want to wield Islam as a political force and conflate state and mosque."[32]

Notes and references

  1. ^ a b Diamond, Sara. 1989. Spiritual Warfare: The Politics of the Christian Right. Boston: South End Press.
  2. ^ a b c Barron, Bruce. 1992. Heaven on Earth? The Social & Political Agendas of Dominion Theology. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan. ISBN 0-310-53611-1.
  3. ^ a b Diamond, Sara. 1995. Roads to Dominion: Right-Wing Movements and Political Power in the United States. New York: Guilford Press. ISBN 0-89862-864-4.
  4. ^ a b Clarkson, Frederick. 1997. Eternal Hostility: The Struggle Between Theocracy and Democracy. Monroe, Maine: Common Courage. ISBN 1-56751-088-4
  5. ^ a b Berlet, Chip and Matthew N. Lyons. 2000. Right-Wing Populism in America: Too Close for Comfort. New York: Guilford Press.
  6. ^ a b Martin, William. 1996. With God on Our Side: The Rise of the Religious Right in America. New York: Broadway Books.
  7. ^ See #Range of Dominionist ideas
  8. ^ See #Influence on the Christian Right
  9. ^ See #Dominionism debated
  10. ^ Anthony Williams (2005-05-04). ""Dominionist" Fantasies". FrontPage Magazine. Retrieved 2007-05-04.
  11. ^ Stanley Kurtz (2005-05-02). "Dominionist Domination: The Left runs with a wild theory". National Review Online. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
  12. ^ Chip Berlet, "Following the Threads," in Ansell, Amy E. Unraveling the Right: The New Conservatism in American Thought and Politics, pp. 24, Westview Press, 1998, ISBN 0-813-33147-1
  13. ^ "The Rise of the Religious Right in the Republican Party", TheocracyWatch, Last updated: December 2005; URL accessed May 8, 2006.
  14. ^ Hexham, Irving, "The Evangelical Response to the New Age," in Perspectives on the New Age, edited by James R. Lewis & J. Gordon Melton, State University of New York Press, Albany, New York, 1992, pp. 152-163, especially p. 322 Note 16.
  15. ^ a b Clarkson, Frederick. 2005. "The Rise of Dominionism: Remaking America as a Christian Nation." The Public Eye magazine, Vol. 19, No. 3, (Winter) [1]
  16. ^ The Institutes of Biblical Law, p. 3-4.
  17. ^ Foreword to Greg Bahnsen's Theonomy in Christian Ethics, 3rd edition, xii.
  18. ^ Funding the Culture Wars: Philanthropy, Church and State By John Russell January 2005
  19. ^ the National Committee for Responsive Philanthropy
  20. ^ "The Rise of the Religious Right in the Republican Party: Introduction", TheocracyWatch, Last updated: March 2006; URL accessed May 8, 2006.
  21. ^ "The Rise of the Religious Right in the Republican Party: Taking Over the Republican Party", TheocracyWatch, Last updated: February 2005; URL accessed May 8, 2006.
  22. ^ The Christian Right and the Rise of American Fascism By Chris Hedges, TheocracyWatch.
  23. ^ For evangelicals, a bid to 'reclaim America' By Jane Lampman. March 16, 2005 The Christian Science Monitor.
  24. ^ Jon Ward, "Liberals gather to plumb depths of Christian Right" (May 3, 2005 issue).
  25. ^ Ellis Henican, "A spiritual olive branch for the far-right faithful," Newsday, May 1, 2005. Reposted at YuricaReport.com. Retrieved 23 September 2006
  26. ^ John Lofton Interviews Roy Moore Ed Brayton. Dispatches from the Culture Wars, July 24, 2006.
  27. ^ Larzer Ziff, The Career of John Cotton: Puritanism and the American Experience (Princeton University Press, 1962), pp. 97-98.
  28. ^ "My Problem with Christianism" by Andrew Sullivan, Time Magazine, May 15, 2006, accessed May 9, 2006. Reprinted at John Mark Ministries.
  29. ^ When Semantic Differences Are Not: Part Two Tristero, June 1, 2003, accessed May 16, 2006.
  30. ^ How about Christianism? David Neiwert, June 8, 2003, accessed May 16, 2006.
  31. ^ Christianism vs. Christianity Daily Kos, November 8, 2004, accessed May 9, 2006.
  32. ^ "My Problem with Christianism" by Andrew Sullivan, Time Magazine, May 15, 2006, accessed May 9, 2006.

Additional references

Further reading

  • Barron, Bruce. 1992. Heaven on Earth? The Social & Political Agendas of Dominion Theology. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan. ISBN 0-310-53611-1.
  • Clarkson, Frederick. 1997. Eternal Hostility: The Struggle Between Theocracy and Democracy. Monroe, Maine: Common Courage. ISBN 1-56751-088-4
  • Clarkson, Frederick, Christian Reconstructionism: Theocratic Dominionism Gains Influence, The Public Eye 8, Nos. 1—2 (March, June 1994).
  • Davis, Derek H. & Hankins, Barry New Religious Movements and Religious Liberty in America, Baylor University Press, 2003.
  • Diamond, Sara, Roads to Dominion: Right-wing Movements and Political Power in the United States, (1995) Guilford Press, ISBN 0-898-62864-4
  • Diamond, Sara. 1989. Spiritual Warfare: The Politics of the Christian Right. Boston: South End Press.
  • Goldberg, Michelle, Kingdom Coming: The Rise of Christian Nationalism, W.W. Norton, 2007.
  • Hedges, Chris, American Fascists: The Christian Right and the War on America, Free Press, 2006.
  • Maddox, Marion, God under Howard: The Rise of the Religious Right in Australian Politics, Allen & Unwin, 2005.
  • Mccarraher, Eugene , Empire Falls', Commonweal. Volume: 133. Issue: 9. May 5, 2006
  • Steinfels, Peter, Be Not Afraid The American Prospect. Volume: 17. Issue: 9, September 2006
  • Weinstein, Michael, With God on Our Side: One Man's War Against an Evangelical Coup in America's Military, Thomas Dunne Books, 2006.


See also

External links

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