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Heqin

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Heqin (Chinese: 和親; pinyin: Héqīn; Wade–Giles: Ho-ch'in; lit. 'peace marriage'), or marriage alliance, refers to the historical practice of Chinese emperors marrying princesses (usually members of minor branches of the royal family) to rulers of neighbouring states.[1] It was often adopted as an appeasement strategy with an enemy state which was too powerful to defeat on the battlefield. The policy was not always effective, and it implied an equal diplomatic status between the Chinese emperor and the foreign ruler. As a result, it was controversial and had many critics.[1]

Lou Jing (Chinese: 娄敬, later granted the royal surname Liu), the architect of the policy, proposed granting the eldest daughter of Emperor Gaozu of Han to the Modun Chanyu of the Xiongnu Empire. His proposal was adopted and implemented with a treaty in 198 BC.[2][3] Wang Zhaojun of the Han dynasty and Princess Wencheng of the Tang dynasty are among the most famous heqin princesses.

20th-century scholar Wang Tonglin praised heqin for facilitating the "melting of races" in China.[4] Wang observed that heqin was limited to militarily powerful, usually nomadic, neighbours of the Chinese, including the Manchus, the Mongols, and the Tibetans, but not culturally advanced, agricultural ones such as Korea, Japan, and India.[5]

Han Dynasty

There were a total of fifteen instances of heqin marriage alliances during the Han Dynasty.[6][3]

Sixteen Kingdoms Period

During the Sixteen Kingdoms period, there were a total of six recorded instances of heqin marriage. Heqin marriage alliances during the Sixteen Kingdoms period differed from those practiced during the Han Dynasty in two main ways. First, they involved "real" princesses (i.e. daughters of emperors or rulers). Second, unlike during the Han Dynasty, when most heqin marriages were aimed at establishing peace with foreign nations, heqin marriages during the Sixteen Kingdoms period were made primarily to settle rivalries and maintain a balance of power between the various states in China at the time.[6]

Southern and Northern Dynasties

During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, China was also divided into many rival states. A complicated system of rivalries and vassalage existed. Heqin marriage was employed as a method to maintain a balance of power or to solidify alliances between states.[6]

During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, there were five instances of Heqin marriage.

Sui Dynasty

With the establishment of the Sui Dynasty in 581 A.D., China was once again unified under one dynasty. Heqin marriage during the Sui Dynasty therefore returned to its original purpose of trying to appease barbarian tribes on China's borders.[6]

There were a total of seven instances of Heqin marriage during the Sui Dynasty.

Tang Dynasty

During the Tang Dynasty, heqin marriage alliances were aimed primarily at five major states that bordered the Tang Empire: The Tuyuhun Kingdom, Tibet, the Khitans, Orkhon Uyghur, and the Kingdom of Nanzhao.[6]

There were a total of twenty-one instances of heqin marriage alliances during the Tang Dynasty:

There were a total of seventeen instances of heqin marriage alliances during the Tang Dynasty.

640—690: 5 instances, to Tuyuhun, and 1 instance to Tibet.
710—745: 4 instances, to Khitan, 3 instances, to Xi, and 1 instance, to Tibet.
758—821: 7 instances, to Orkhon Uyghur (including two daughters of the Chinese Emperor, i.e. real princesses, and 3 of Tiele descent).
883: 1 occurrence, to Nanzhao (second daughter of Emperor Yizong of Tang).

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b Slobodník (2006), p. 268.
  2. ^ Di Cosmo (2004), p. 193.
  3. ^ a b Rui Chuanming (芮传明). "古代和亲利弊论" (PDF) (in Chinese). Retrieved 18 October 2014.
  4. ^ Bulag (2002), p. 83.
  5. ^ Bulag (2002), p. 84.
  6. ^ a b c d e Cui (2005), pp. 631–688.

Bibliography

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