Jiehua

Yellow Crane Tower (黄鹤楼图) by Xia Yong 夏永

Jiehua (simplified Chinese: 界画; traditional Chinese: 界畫, pinyin: jièhuà) painting, sometimes translated as “border painting,” “boundary painting,” or “ruled-line painting,” is a field within Chinese visual art that describes paintings featuring detailed renderings of architecture with shan shui (mountains and rivers) backgrounds and figures, boats, and carts as embellishments. Referring to this style with the term jiehua instead of a direct translation is commonly agreed to be the most accurate, as the word jie (界) refers to a device called jiechi (界尺) which was a ruler with marks or grooves that helped Chinese painters draw the straight lines necessary to depict architectural detail. These paintings are characterized by their meticulous attention to detail, technical consideration, and mechanical perfection, distinguishing jiehua from other painting genres.

Techniques, materials and tools

The use of jiehua devices.

While it is known that jiehua painters commonly utilized a tool called jiechi (界尺), a ruler marked with grooves, to guide their hands in creating precise straight lines needed for architectural detailing, the mechanics of these jiehua tools remain somewhat obscure. Modern scholar Shen Kangshen 沈康身 attempted to reconstruct the historical usage of jiechi in a more generalized manner, relying on a Ming-era instrument. According to Shen, a complete set of jiehua tools consists of a parallel ruler (jiechi 界尺), a groove ruler (caochi 槽尺), and a brush (bi 笔). The parallel ruler comprises two straight edges affixed to two movable rods. By anchoring the lower edge and adjusting the angle between the rods and edges, the upper edge shifts to create parallel lines. The groove ruler, a lengthy, squared-off stick featuring a semicircular slot, securely holds the brush tip, allowing it to engage with the painting surface. The painter affixes the bottom of the groove ruler to the upper edge of the parallel ruler. Subsequently, the right hand maintains the angles between the groove ruler and the parallel ruler, as well as between the groove ruler and the brush. Consequently, the groove ruler smoothly glides seamlessly along the parallel ruler, guiding the brush to consistently produce straight lines.

Although the use of the jiechi ruler and other tools was a common practice among jiehua artists, historical records highlight several jiehua specialists who were renowned for their freehand techniques rather than reliance on rulers. For example, during the Northern Song era, writer Guo Ruoxu 郭若虚 criticized his contemporaries for depending on rulers when discussing architectural subjects in his work Tuhua Jianwen Zhu (Paintings Seen and Heard 图画见闻志). He indicated that previous jiehua painters such as Guo Zhongshu 郭国宝 and Wang Shiyuan 王士元 did not use rulers, which he regarded as more admirable, and later on, Guo and Wang were both celebrated as exemplary masters of jiehua painting. This emphasizes that while traditional Chinese writers closely associated jiehua with the usage of rulers, they did not perceive ruled-line technique and freehand drawing as mutually exclusive because, even without mechanical aids, these freehand artists achieved a similar visual effect to ruled-line technique. This confirms that the evaluation of a jiehua painting's effect takes precedence over the tools used, and jiehua as an art form is defined not by the tools used but rather by stylistic principles. Yuan scholar Rao Ziran 饶自然 reinforced this concept when discussing jiehua, stating, "Even if you do not use rulers, you should still consistently use the principles of jiehua to achieve it," thereby distinguishing between the aesthetic qualities of jiehua and the use of rulers, and expanding the connotation of jiehua beyond its literal translation of "ruled-line painting." In essence, while the jiehua genre emphasizes mechanical aids and subject categories, it primarily recognizes itself as a painting style guided by specific principles or laws.

Style and literati impact

Art historians’ description of jiehua style repeatedly emphasize the essential requirement of understanding Chinese construction techniques and standards. This characteristic not only distinguished the genre but also rendered it more challenging to execute compared to other painting styles. Four basic principles compose jiehua style: faultless calculation, structural clarity, correct scale, and mathematical and architectural knowledge. Historical records indicate that excellent jiehua masters were able to create paintings that met building and other construction standards or even surpassed experienced craftsmen, such as an anecdote in Yizhou Minghua Lu (益州名画录) about court painter Zhao Zhongyi 赵忠义 whose jiehua painting passed the inspection of a skilled architect, proving he had mastered the actual practices of a craftsman.

However, the interaction between jiehua and craftsmanship frequently led to two negative consequences: its difficulty to master and a general disdain of the painting genre stemming from literati ideology. By the standard of ancient Chinese aesthetics, the Six Principles of Chinese painting (Liufa 六法) placed spirit resonance as the most significant element in connoisseurship while the painting skills and artists’ practice were secondary. Jiehua contains many artificial aspects from theme to painting method and it requires fundamental knowledge of mathematics and architecture, as covered in the four basic principles of jiehua style. Thus, in some cases, jiehua was considered more like an architectural drawing than an artwork, a quality antithetical to the natural spirit resonance and nature’s beauty of literati ideals, leading to a general pejorative attitude towards the genre. For instance, historical records from the early Eastern Jin dynasty show that Gu Kaizhi 顧愷之 considered architectural artwork as static subjects lacking expressive ideas, and thus ranked it last amongst all other painting styles. The Tangchao Minghualu (Famous Paintings of the Tang Period 唐朝名画录) from the Tang dynasty also placed paintings depicting architecture at the bottom of the painting system. In the Yuan dynasty, following Tang Hou 汤垕's creation of the thirteen painting categories, jiehua found itself relegated to the lowest position. As the Yuan dynasty waned, jiehua's standing further diminished. Scholar Xu Qin 徐沁 from the Ming period, remarking on the painting genre's declining significance, noted that its practitioners were viewed as inferior artisans, given the prevailing preference for the other styles of painting masters from the Yuan era.

Nevertheless, despite general disdain, literati actively attempted to integrate jiehua within the predominant trends of painting conventions. Dating back to the Tang period, concerted efforts were made by art historians to free architectural paintings from reliance on mechanical aids, such as Lidai Minghuaji (Famous Paintings Through History 历代名画记) stressing the importance of abstract spirit and unity in architectural painting, instead of rulers or tools. The Song dynasty palace catalog Xuanhe Huapu (The Xuanhe Catalog of Paintings 宣和画谱) also differentiated between two categories of jiehua: an inferior one strictly governed by rules, and a superior one not restricted by them. Qing writer Zheng Ji 郑绩 further transformed the meaning of jiehua, shifting its association from carpenter's tools to abstract principles. This change aimed to eradicate the perceived contrast between jiehua and literati painting. According to Zheng Ji, jiehua no longer signifies reliance on rulers but underscores adherence to rules and laws. Thus, although jiehua style’s association with the usage of rulers originated right from the outset—making it impossible to separate the genre fully from craftsmanship—members of the literati constantly sought to transform jiehua into a form compatible with conventional literati preferences.

On this note, contemporary scholars assert that it is essential to recognize that even when jiehua painters employed rulers marked with measurements and despite their concern for artistic verisimilitude, their depictions of architecture are generally regarded as lacking in specificity or accuracy when compared to the existing buildings. Nevertheless, as these same scholars note, jiehua artworks featuring architectural subjects are acknowledged as being capable of providing valuable insights into building types and architectural details, especially of early dynastic and secular buildings, and of structures no longer existing. These paintings are thus still often employed in academic research as valuable sources for the study of ancient Chinese architecture.

History

Eastern Zhou Dynasty (770BC - 221BC)

The origins of jiehua can be traced back to as early as the Eastern Zhou Dynasty. Among the earliest possible practitioners of this art form was Jingjun 敬君, hailing from the Qi state during this era. Scant historical records suggest that he might be the earliest recorded artist to have explored architectural themes. Additionally, archeological finds of lacquerware in excavations in Linzi, Shandong depict architectural subjects, and provide a valuable glimpse into architectural representation in the Eastern Zhou period.

Qin and Han Dynasties (221BC - 220AD)

While the Zhou dynasty marks the first occurrence of textual references to early manifestations of jiehua, Qin and Han dynasties present the first visual testimony of the art form. Notably, during this period, depictions of houses, pavilions, and palaces began emerging on Han stone reliefs. The art and paintings of this time served primarily utilitarian and illustrative functions, a fact exemplified by the illustrations found in Zhang Yuanyin’s Records of Famous Paintings of the Past Dynasties 《历代名画记》. This furnishes compelling evidence regarding the genesis of jiehua’s aesthetic principles, which prioritize precision and accuracy in architectural representations, as opposed to the abstract impressionism that characterized literati landscape traditions in later periods.

Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties (220 - 589)

During the Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern dynasties, the artistic scope of jiehua expanded beyond technical architectural drawings to also incorporate scenery and environments. Although surviving works from this period are few, many names of jiehua painters were recorded and For instance, the painter Yang Xiushan 杨修善 from the Cao Wei court created a landmark jiehua work called the Two Capitals 《两京图》 which depicted the splendor of the dual capitals of Luoyang and Chang'an. Notably, alongside secular structures, Buddhist temple architecture emerged as a prominent subject in jiehua during this period, coinciding with the rapid spread of Buddhism. Craftsmen like Jiang Shaoyou 蒋少游, possessing expertise in architecture and engineering due to their professional backgrounds, also joined the ranks of jiehua painters. This integration of specialized architectural knowledge into the realm of jiehua represents a significant and pivotal development in the evolution of the art form. Yet despite such advancements, it was also during this period that the earliest records emerge of jiehua being viewed as an inferior art form, with Eastern Jin scholar Gu Kaizhi 顧愷之 ranking it as the lowest form, a classification that laid the groundwork for a tradition of disdain towards jiehua by literati circles throughout the rest of history.

Sui Dynasty (589 - 618)

The short-lived Sui dynasty constituted another period of significant evolution for jiehua. With the growing popularity of Buddhism, the Sui dynasty saw massive amounts of Buddhist temple construction, which provided copious new subjects and opportunities for jiehua painting. Other Sui painters like Yang Qidan also stood out for creating jiehua based on real, existing architecture, marking a continued shift towards realistic representation. On the technical side, the use of boundary rulers as tools to delineate architectural lines and shapes became more standardized during the Sui dynasty. This rapid development of jiehua in the short lived Sui period was essential for the emergence of "painting styles and painting techniques… serving as a bridge between the past and the future."

Tang Dynasty (618 - 907)

The Tang dynasty, with its cultural flourishing and imperial patronage of the arts, ushered in a golden age for the development of jiehua. Artists during the Tang took jiehua beyond the realm of technical architectural drawings to new artistic heights in terms of quality, techniques, and expression. The most famed jiehua that arose during this period is without exception the Dunhuang murals, especially in the Mogao Cave, which provide a rich source of visual material not simply for the study of Tang art, but even more importantly visual testimony of Tang architecture, of which few actual buildings still exist to this day. Aside from the Dunhuang murals, innovators like painter Yin Jizhao introduced new architectural and mathematical techniques and knowledge into jiehua creation, while famous court painter, Yan Liben, was one of the first to demonstrate professional skills in depicting automotive architectural structures in his jiehua paintings, such as carts and chariots, further expanding jiehua from stationary structures to include mobile ones.  The thematic scope of jiehua also continued its expansion of incorporating landscape environs and human figures, with landscapes even dominating the composition over the architectural renderings, as seen in paintings such as “Jiangfan Pavilion Picture” 《江帆楼阁图》 by Li Sixun 李思训. Moreover, these jiehua paintings such as the “Jiangfan Pavilion Picture” demonstrate increased depictions of secular, everyday themes, alongside the Buddhist and other religious or imperial imagery.

Five Dynasties (907 - 960)

Despite the disruptions of the fragmented Five Dynasties era, it constituted a significant period for the maturation of jiehua in terms of technical skill. Masters like Wei Xian and Hu Yi exemplified new heights of meticulous precision and verisimilitude in jiehua painting during this time, such as Wei Xian’s famous jiehua piece known as “Water Mill” 《闸口盘车图》. The range of jiehua also expanded beyond wall paintings and scrolls into new mediums like textiles for daily use. The Five Dynasties continued the Tang legacy of highly skilled craftsmen entering into the practice of jiehua creation.

Song Dynasty (960-1279)

Jiehua painting as a distinct artistic category emerged during the Southern Song period, evidenced through literary sources and examples in artwork. During this period, jiehua peaked and became solidified as a painting genre, characterized by its architectural precision and scholarly influence. The Southern Song Capital of Lin’an – modern-day Hangzhou – served as the period’s primary art center. This centrality can be attributed to the influence of artists from nearby Wuxing, and its attributes as a capital city marked by artistic patronage and a congruence of cultural exchange, meaning that Lin’an served as the cultural and economic hub of the period. Examples of these works were found usually in palaces or temples, with its subjects ranging from ancient tales to objects from the natural world.

Court patronage for jiehua peaked in the Northern Song period, resulting in the creation of some of the greatest jiehua masterpieces of all time, such as Along the River During Qingming Festival 《清明上河图》. Historian Wen Chien-Cheng suggests that the renaissance of jiehua painting in the Northern Song Dynasty may be attributed to the rising prominence of landscape paintings and appreciation of realism. The surviving jiehua works from the Southern Song period typically portray close-ups of structures which were “often juxtaposed with voids that suggest distance and atmospheric mood," an adoption of Southern literati landscape features.

Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368)

Beginning in the Yuan dynasty, jiehua largely replaced other names of depictions of architectural subjects and man-made objects, such as the term wumu which literally describes “wooden constructions” and features subjects of boats and carts. During this period, jiehua continued to enjoy court patronage and consumer demand, despite the pejorative attitude towards it from literati circles. From the few jiehua artworks dating back to the Yuan dynasty, around 100 paintings survive. These paintings showcase the Yuan artists’ attention to detail and new Yuan jiehua traditions, such as the baimiao technique or line drawing without shading and increasingly popular modular approach or the rearranging of standardized components within a composition.

Besides the technical aspects, the Yuan dynasty experienced a shift in the preferential materials used for jiehua painting. Favored among literati scholars, silk became an increasingly popular medium for painting during the Yuan period, used by around 48 percent of paintings in museum collections. However, this material change is reflected in the characteristics of its artwork, with paper being able to retain greater ink density and tonality.

As in the Southern Song period, Hangzhou continued to serve as a hotspot for artistic ingenuity of jiehua during the Yuan period. In 1284, the Mongols instituted the Maritime Trade Supervisorate, placing Hangzhou as a center for international trade, which resulted in the popularity of art markets and exportation of jiehua paintings to other neighboring countries.

Ming (1368-1644)

The Ming dynasty saw a recession in the popularity of jiehua painting. During the transition between the Yuan and Ming periods, jiehua declined in status to be viewed as a lower tradition of craft. As Anita Chung notes, “unlike their predecessors, almost no jiehua specialists of the Ming are recorded in literature as having achieved faultless calculation and the right proportion." This can be attributed to social and political factors, namely a decline in imperial patronage, an emphasis on technical skill, and increasing popularity of literati paintings. Overall, the Ming period oversaw shifts in jiehua technique, with artists favoring smaller, more delicate representations, instead of “structural clarity” of entire buildings juxtaposed with a mountainous landscape. This shift is perhaps no better represented than in Qiu Ying’s paintings of this time, such as Spring Morning in the Han Palace and the Jiucheng Palace.

Qing (1644-1911)

With increased economic and political stability, the Qing dynasty marked a resurgence in production of jiehua paintings. Many surviving examples of jiehua during this period are court paintings, as imperial patrons and others in the upper class would hire artists to depict the opulence and splendor that their lives possessed. In return, through their work, the artist’s social status would be boosted and would allow them to interact with other wealthy potential patrons. Paintings commissioned by those in the court would often emphasize material possessions and feature subjects such as “ritual spaces, places and cities”. Artworks commissioned by the merchant class would often feature gardens as a way to showcase their high social standings. Another important feature of the genre during this period is the exposure to and influence of European art. Throughout the Qing period, jiehua artists working within the imperial court were introduced to European art by visiting missionaries. These missionary travelers introduced new techniques in linear perspective and shading which allowed a greater degree of realism, and helped further refine the Qing artists’ meticulous attention to detail and bolstered their spatial awareness.

Modern (1911-Current)

After the fall of imperial China, jiehua descended into obscurity. It was not until the turn of the 21st century that saw a slow resurgence in interest by contemporary Chinese artists at both reviving traditional jiehua and breathing new life into its legacy. On the traditional front, artist Zhang Xiayong is most prominent in resurrecting the traditional practices of jiehua creation. Zhang first garnered widespread recognition through his work “Fanlou Art Market” and his art has been circulated throughout many overseas museums, earning him praise due to his artistic mastery of fine line brushwork and his overall contributions to the revival of traditional artistic techniques (大赏艺术). Zhang’s study of architecture and structures align his work with the detailed architectural renderings of traditional jiehua, while also employing a linear perspective seen in many Western paintings and popularized in Qing dynasty jiehua. On the modernization front, many artists have begun experimenting with different mediums while still retaining aspects of jiehua tradition. One such example is in “ceramic jiehua landscapes” (陶瓷界画山水), wherein modern artists use ceramic pottery as a medium to transcend the traditional mediums of jiehua and incorporate traditional jiehua practices against a shan shui backdrop, while shedding the ancient traditional toolset in favor of using more freehand brushwork to “express the traditional humanistic spirit." The revival of jiehua in the 21st century, driven by both traditionalists like Zhang Xiayong and modern artists experimenting with new mediums, has breathed new life into this ancient art form, ensuring its legacy will endure and evolve for generations to come.

Artists and artworks

Sui Dynasty

Spring Excursion (游春图) by Zhan Ziqian (展子虔)

“Spring Excursion” 《游春图》by Zhan Ziqian 展子虔

Zhan Ziqian was a famed painter living through the transitional phases of the Northern Qi and Northern Zhou Dynasties and Sui dynasty. His artistic prowess, marked by impeccable skill and innovative vision, served as the bedrock for the subsequent evolution of jiehua paintings. His only surviving work, "Spring Excursion," deviated from the primitive architectural images displayed in stone reliefs from earlier dynasties, instead incorporating landscape themes with meticulously rendered structures nestled within the landscape. This incorporation of jiehua elements, namely meticulously rendered architectural structures, into a landscape setting is what distinguishes “Spring Excursion” as being an early representation of jiehua painting from simply being another landscape painting. It was precisely this masterful use of fine brushwork to create intricate architectural designs that led to the emergence of jiehua’s defining trait of architectural precision and meticulous detail, emphasizing a major milestone in the evolution of the art form.

Tang Dynasty

Jiangfan Pavilion (江帆楼阁图) by Li Sixun (李思训)

“Jiangfan Pavilion” 《江帆楼阁图》 by Li Sixun 李思训

During the formative phases of jiehua, the art form remained deeply influenced by various artistic traditions, including color palette, figure painting, landscape depictions, and architectural design. One noteworthy contributor to Tang dynasty jiehua was Li Sixun, who made a significant impact by elevating landscapes as a prominent focal point in his jiehua compositions, a thematic choice strongly informed by the artistic legacy of Zhan Ziqian. A prime example is his work “Jiangfan Pavilion,” which exemplifies this shift towards landscapes taking precedence over architectural structures. Li Sixun’s use of 唐三彩, the three colors of Tang (green, yellow, and white), boats, and figures, in his jiehua cemented these as common features of jiehua. Moreover, the strategic placement of boats in the upper corners of the painting introduced a tangible sense of distance and depth previously unseen in earlier dynastic jiehua.

“Wangchuan Villa” 《辋川图》and “Snowy Stream” 《雪溪图》by Wang Wei 王维

Wangchuan Villa painting (辋川图) by Wang Wei 王维

Wang Wei, a multitalented figure and known as one of the Four Greatest Artists during the Tang period, notably produced several jiehua pieces. For instance, his jiehua piece “Wangchuan Villa” depicts his own residence in meticulous detail against a prominent 山水 landscape background, and adorned with the distinctive 唐三彩 (green, white, and yellow) (Chen ye) hues emblematic of Tang dynasty jiehua art. While Wang Wei undoubtedly painted a variety of subjects and employed various painting styles, when it comes to his jiehua, he either painted with the 唐三彩 colors, as seen in “Wangchuan Villa,” or in ink monochrome (shuimo), as seen in multiple pieces such as “Snowy Stream” 《雪溪图》.

Luoyang Tower (洛阳楼图) by Li Zhaodao (李昭道)

“Luoyang Tower” 《洛阳楼图》by Li Zhaodao 李昭道

Li Zhaodao, the son of the famous jiehua painter Li Sixun, distinguished himself as another accomplished Tang dynasty jiehua artist with several notable pieces. For instance, his work “Luoyang Tower” showcases a meticulously arranged complex of pavilions and buildings, radiating a striking sense of symmetry along the central axis. The artful spatial interplay and methodical stacking of palaces within the painting create a palpable atmosphere of harmony and precision. As a reflection of established jiehua conventions and a direct inheritance of his father’s influence, “Luoyang Tower” incorporates human figures and an intricately rendered 山水 background in the composition, a practice that enhances the artwork’s scale and depth, elevating its overall aesthetic. As the son of Li Sixun, Li Zhaodao inherited and masterfully continued his father’s legacy in jiehua painting, showcasing remarkable talent in his craft and contributing significantly to the ongoing evolution of jiehua.

Five Dynasties Dynasty

“Water Mill” 《闸口盘车图》by Wei Xian 卫贤

Water Mill (闸口盘车图) by Wei Xian 卫贤 (Five Dynasties)

Wei Xian was a Five Dynasties period jiehua painter hailing from Jingzhao who is famed for his iconic jiehua painting “Water Mill.” During the Five Dynasties and Northern Song period, jiehua continued emphasis on the integration of diverse landscapes, both rural and urban, while also placing even greater importance on the accuracy and detailed precision of depicted structures. Wei Xian’s iconic “Water Mill” emerges as one of the first visual testimonies towards these emerging trends within the developing jiehua genre. From the decorative timbers and the wooden tavern to the main building of the water mill itself, Wei Xian showcases his mastery of new jiehua artistry in his depiction of a government water mill at the river's entrance, including the entire milling process, delivering, and other activities. The painting has come to be regarded as representing one of the highest achievements in the history of architectural painting, influencing subsequent jiehua masterpieces such as the Song dynasty jiehua icon “Along the River during Qingming Festival”.

Northern Song

Summer Palace of Emperor Ming (明皇避暑宮) by Guo Zhongshu (郭忠恕)

“Summer Palace of Emperor Ming” 《明皇避暑宮》by Guo Zhongshu 郭忠恕

Guo Zhongshu, a celebrated figure of the Five Dynasties period and Song dynasty, is renowned for his multifaceted talents as a jiehua painter, scholar, and philologist. He exhibited remarkable versatility in painting various subjects, including landscapes, architectural structures, and figures. Regarding specifically his jiehua contributions, his works prominently feature palaces, pavilions, and houses. Guo's distinctive style incorporated techniques such as rich structure, center strokes, a seamless flow without sharp corners, bold and expressive lines, and an artful irregular arrangement with a meticulous attention to penmanship, connections, lines, and shading. During the Song period, monochrome ink became more and more popular among jiehua artists, of which Guo Zhongshu was no exception. His painting “Summer Palace of Emperor Ming” demonstrates his mastery of the ink technique, both for the meticulous architectural structures and for the highly detailed landscape. So incredible was Guo Zhongshu’s mastery of the practices of knowledgeable architects, he even surpassed them, with a historical anecdote recording how Guo successfully warned Yu Hao, the most skilled architect of Northern Song, of an error in Yu’s pagoda design based solely on Yu’s miniature model, a warning which Yu was forever grateful. Historical records further indicate that Guo famously was a practitioner of the freehand technique in jiehua—namely, he did not resort to rulers but rather was able to draw straight lines necessary by hand. Guo Zhongshu is universally acknowledged as one of the most prestigious specialists in jiehua to have ever lived.

“Along the River during Qingming Festival” (清明上河图) by Zhang Zeduan 张择端 in the Northern Song Dynasty

“Along the River during Qingming Festival” 《清明上河图》by Zhang Zeduan 张择端

Zhang Zeduan was a Song dynasty landscape painter famed for his iconic piece “Along the River during Qingming Festival," which stands as the most celebrated exemplar of not only Song dynasty jiehua but also of China’s greatest artistic brilliance, dubbed “China’s Mona Lisa." The artwork has earned its fame for intricately portraying urban life during the Qingming Festival, as well as the integration of elements of cultural and historical significance into its composition. Measuring more than 17 ft long, the scroll painting unfurls as a vivid chronicle of everyday activities, featuring meticulously rendered bustling markets, transactions at shops, social gatherings, boat journeys, horseback rides, and numerous other elements that authentically capture the essence of the period set against an architectural landscape nothing short of breathtaking in its breadth, scope, and precision of architectural renderings. A testament to its legacy, Zhang Zeduan’s “Along the River During Qingming Festival” inspired countless jiehua artists of subsequent dynasties, even as late as the Qing period, with hundreds of replicas, copies of copies, and even forgeries of well-regarded copies made, each following the overall composition and the theme of the original but differing in detail and technique, cementing Zhang Zeduan’s name as a pillar within the annals of jiehua history.

Yuan Dynasty

“Dragon Boat Regatta” 《龙舟夺标图》by Wang Zhenpeng 王振鹏

Dragon Boat Regatta (龙舟夺标图) by Wang Zhenpeng 王振鹏

Hailing from Wenzhou in Zhejiang, Wang Zhenpeng emerged as a celebrated luminary in the realm of jiehua painting, leaving an indelible mark during the Yuan dynasty. His artistic prowess earned him the esteemed title "弧云处士" from Emperor Renzong of the Yuan dynasty. Wang Zhenpeng inherited Guo Zhongshu's painting techniques. Wang Zhenpeng inherited the Southern Song emphasis on cantilever and parallel lines, as demonstrated in his paintings such as “Dragon Boat Regatta” , while the painting techniques used by Wang are completely distinguished from all the previous ones. His two techniques included flexibly arranged modular motifs and dazzlingly polished ink lines. Historical records show that Wang Zhenpeng actively presented his jiehua to the throne and was subsequently placed into a high office position by Emperor Wenzong, painting on the commission of the Yuan court itself. He became the most celebrated jiehua artist of the Yuan court, and even after Wang gradually disappeared from the stage of art during Wenzong’s reign, his pupils—such as Li Rongjin, Wei Jiuding, and Zhu Yu—and other followers continued to carry forward his jiehua style.

Hanyuan Picture (汉苑图) by Li Rongjin (李容瑾)

“Hanyuan Picture” 《汉苑图》by Li Rongjin 李容瑾

Hanyuan Picture (汉苑图) by Li Rongjin 李容瑾

Li Rongjin, a distinguished landscape painter of the Yuan dynasty, was a student of the famed jiehua painter Wang Zhenpeng. Inheriting Wang Zhenpeng’s style and adroitly blending both freehand and rule-lined techniques, Li Rongjin's "Hanyuan Picture" vividly showcases the influence of the Northern Song landscape tradition, particularly associated with Li Cheng and Guo Xi, on Yuan jiehua masters. The painting features distant misty hills by a flowing river, created with delicate brushwork. Eroded riverbanks and trees add to the desolate atmosphere, while rocks in the foreground, shaped like rolling clouds, represent Li-Guo motifs. Li Rongjin harmoniously combines Northern Song landscape elements with Wang Zhenpeng's jiehua style in this artwork. However, although Li Rongjin’s architectural landscape “Hanyuan Tu” partly inherits Li Cheng’s style of rocks and trees and the Northern Song large-scale compositions, he ameliorates the inconsistency of Li Cheng’s perspective treatment in a monumental landscape by establishing a consistent point of view, thereby dissolving the tension between the artistic vision and the real vision in their art. This work as well as others from Li Rongjin served as a great source of inspiration for subsequent jiehua artists, with copies and imitations making their way even beyond China’s borders to neighboring countries such as Japan.

“Yellow Pavilion” 《黄鹤楼图》by Xia Yong 夏永

Xia Yong, an artist from the Yuan era, is lauded for his innovative approach to the art form, particularly his pioneering technique known as "open-embroidery", which disappeared during the Ming dynasty. Beyond his technical proficiency, he established a modular system and a tradition of plain-drawing that was truly unparalleled. As demonstrated in the “Yellow Pavilion,” Xia's artworks exhibit a remarkable degree of modularity, or in other words the art of arranging modular components to construct architectural images. For instance, all bracket sets in his depiction of the Yellow Pavilion are simply a successive duplication of the exact same bracket set, without any variance or minor discrepancy as would be present in a strict realistic depiction of an actual building. Xia Yong’s modularity in the “Yellow Pavilion” even extended itself into presenting the roof ridge ornaments in a more abstract and standardized fashion compared to earlier traditional jiehua depictions, which prioritized accuracy and detail, as well as an overall simplification of architectural units within the building structures, such as the complex network of cantilevers. His judicious reuse of modules, occasionally with modifications, lastingly impacted subsequent jiehua trends, testifying to Xia’s invaluable contribution to the evolution of jiehua in Chinese art history.

Ming Dynasty

“Enjoying Antiquities”《玩古图》by Du Jin 杜堇

Enjoying Antiquities (玩古图) by Du Jin 杜堇

Hailing from Dantu in present-day Zhenjiang, Jiangsu Province, Du Jin established himself as a prominent figure in Ming dynasty painting, excelling in figure painting, jiehua, and landscape painting. Due to the decline of jiehua popularity in the Ming era, Du Jin, along with his jiehua contemporaries, shifted their focus towards creating intimate and intricate representations within small, interior spaces. A prime example of this approach can be seen in his work “Enjoying Antiquity” which stands in stark contrast to the architectural clarity that characterized jiehua during the earlier Yuan dynasty. Notably, Du Jin’s jiehua elevated figural paintings to the forefront and relegated architectural structures to the role of background elements contextualizing his figurative and narrative subjects, thereby expanding the artistic range of this art form. In contrast to the resurgence of colorful palettes in Ming dynasty artwork, Du Jin continued the Yuan-jiehua tradition of the monochrome "baimiao" technique, a brush technique that produces a finely controlled, supple ink outline drawing without any color or wash embellishment, while his deep appreciation for the fine-line style of Southern Song painters further showcased his versatility and artistic range as a jiehua artist.

“Spring Morning in the Han Palace” 《汉宫春晓图》and “The Jiucheng Palace” 《九成宫》by Qiu Ying 仇英

Spring Morning in the Han Palace (汉宫春晓图) by Qiu Ying 仇英

Hailing from Taicang in Jiangsu Province, Qiu Ying holds a distinguished place as one of the “Four Masters of the Wu School” (吴门四家). His artistic journey was profoundly influenced by Zhuo Chen, who recognized and nurtured Qiu Ying’s budding talent. Qiu Ying stands as one of the "Four Masters of the Ming Dynasty," a group of highly influential artists whose works left a profound impact on later artists and significantly contributed to the development of jiehua and other painting styles, both within and beyond China’s borders. Qiu Ying’s artistic odyssey commenced with the meticulous copying of masterpieces from the Tang and Song dynasties, establishing a strong foundation for his future artistic prowess within jiehua. Notably, Qiu Ying produced jiehua that either aligned with more traditional jiehua representations of extant buildings, as seen in “The Jiucheng Palace,” or aligned with newer Ming jiehua trends of intimate and highly detailed scenes within small, interior spaces, as seen in Spring Morning in the Han Palace. Yet regardless of which category his jiehua fell into, Qiu Ying always utilized a bright, vivid color palette—a unique feature revived during the Ming period—while simultaneously establishing his signature painstaking attention to detail, evident in every aspect of his paintings, from carefully rendered architectural elements to realistic portrayals of figures and landscapes within the composition.

Qing Dynasty

“Agarwood Pavilion” 《沉香亭图》by Yuan Jiang 袁江

Agarwood Pavilion Picture (沉香亭图) by Yuan Jiang 袁江

Yuan Jiang, hailing from Jiangdu, Jiangsu, was an esteemed jiehua painter during the early Qing dynasties. Due to the unpopularity of jiehua during the Ming period, information about jiehua practitioners from the Ming period leading up to the early Qing is scarce, leaving little known about Yuan Jiang’s life and artwork. However, Qing-era jiehua witnessed an influx of Western influence on linear perspective, shading, and spatial awareness, and the first early traces of these influences are evident in many of Yuan’s jiehua, such as the “Agarwood Pavilion.” Notably, Yuan frequently enhanced the height and form of the roofs of his architectural subjects to instill majesty and opulence, lending a strong decorative artistry to his diverse depictions of roof and bridge styles characteristic of his jiehua works. Interestingly, in his rendition of the Agarwood Pavilion, Yuan envisioned the building without direct reference, infusing it with vibrant, rich colors that set it apart as an imaginative piece from traditional jiehua that focused on realistic architectural portrayals.

“Peach Garden” 《桃源图》and “Shanshui Courtyard Strip Screen” 《山水庭院条屏》by Yuan Yao 袁耀

Landscape Courtyard Strip Screen (山水庭院条屏) by Yuan Yao 袁耀

Yuan Yao, a prominent contributor to jiehua painting during the Qing dynasty, remained shrouded in relative obscurity for a prolonged period, with historical accounts often erroneously conflating his name with that of Yuan Jiang, a fellow artist. Within the realm of Qing dynasty painters based in Yangzhou, Yuan Yao emerged as a leading talent, displaying exceptional prowess not only in jiehua techniques but also in landscape art, and the depiction of birds and flowers. The first documented mention of Yuan Yao’s name can be found in 画人补遗, dating back to the Qianlong period. Notably, Yuan Yao shared familial ties with Yuan Jiang, raising speculation among scholars about their precise relationship, possibly that of uncle and nephew or even father and son. Regardless, Yuan Yao’s works clearly display jiehua influences from Yuan Jiang, as seen in the overall linear perspective, shading, and spatial awareness of architectural elements in pieces such as “Peach Garden,” and the “Shanshui Courtyard Strip Screen”, all of which are works predominantly landscape but with a clear incorporation of jiehua architectural elements, a fusion forming Yuan Yao’s signature style. These architectural elements demonstrate Yuan Yao’s firm grasp of jiehua’s genre-defining techniques of architectural meticulousness, evident in the precise brushstrokes of the structures executed with rulers and painstaking attention to detail.

“Landscapes”《山水》by Jiao Bingzhen 焦秉贞

Landscapes (山水) by Jiao Bingzhen 焦秉贞

Jiao Bingzhen, born in Jining, Shandong, was a celebrated Qing dynasty painter, holding a pioneering role in art history by being the first Qing dynasty artist to fully integrate traditional Chinese jiehua painting with Western painting elements. Notably, Jiao Bingzhen was a polymath, excelling as both a painter and a scientist, with a profound understanding of Western art, and mathematics, particularly mathematical principles. His modern artistic approach expertly combined the distinct features of jiehua, such as tilting, single built-in aerial perspective, and meticulous brushwork combined with intricate detail, with Western techniques, seamlessly integrating fully-rendered distant horizons and spatial perspective into his works, as seen in his piece “Landscapes”. Such modern fusion showcases Jiao’s influence on the matured evolution of jiehua in the Qing dynasty before the art form’s untimely collapse into obscurity with the fall of imperial China.

Influence in East Asia

While jiehua production was primarily driven by local demand, it is crucial not to overlook the intriguing connections that emerged beyond its local sphere. In the sixteenth century, jiehua painter Xia Yong's name appeared in Japanese sources, and some of his paintings and imitations, like the Yueyang Pavilion owned by Masamune Tokusaburō and the Palace by the River in the Jinyuan Zhai collection, have either survived or circulated in Japan. Nor was Xia’s jiehua the only jiehua art to make its mark in neighboring countries. For instance, a jiehua piece imitating Li Rongjin’s Han Palace and subsequently collected by the Osaka City Museum of Fine Arts found popularity in Japan, and it is well known that a quite number of copies of Along the River During Qingming Festival 清明上河图 and both original and imitations of jiehua painter Qiu Ying’s work existed in Korean Joseon collections. This highlights a notable aspect of the jiehua art market  – its exportation to other East Asian countries.

The timeline of when jiehua pieces first entered the overseas market remains unclear. However, the establishment of the Maritime Trade Supervisorate in Hangzhou in 1284 ensured that Hangzhou continued to play a vital role in international trade and ocean shipping, and closely linked it to Qingyuan (modern-day Ningbo), a major harbor for trade with Japan. So while documentary evidence may be lacking, it is undeniable that Japanese monks and merchants actively sought paintings in the art markets of Hangzhou and Ningbo during the Yuan-Ming transition. As for the early Ming period, historical records show that Ashikaga Yoshimasa officially sent envoys to acquire Chinese artworks, and it was not uncommon for Japanese painters to travel to China to train in Chinese painting techniques, adapting Chinese styles, including jiehua, into their own Japanese artwork. Historical records further demonstrate that jiehua circulated in large scale across Korea, with Joseon envoys from Korea during the Qing period frequently acquiring jiehua both from Qing court painters and professional painters working for private commission or for markets, and subsequently using them as templates for their own Korean court paintings. Thus, despite being somewhat overshadowed by the flourishing literati landscape, one can confidently assert that jiehua continued to thrive, responding to the needs of both local and overseas markets and permanently influencing the artistic trajectories of China’s neighboring countries, thereby providing a more comprehensive understanding of the East Asian art world in the fourteenth through nineteenth centuries.

One famous example of this cross-cultural influence of Chinese jiehua on Japanese art is none other than the Kano School of Painting. The school’s style merged various aspects of traditional Chinese painting with typical Japanese painting. Jiehua incidentally can clearly be seen as one of these influential traditional Chinese painting styles on Kano School artwork, as several notable Kano School pieces, such as Scenes in and around Kyoto, prominently feature architecture drawn in a style highly reminiscent of Chinese jiehua created slightly prior to or around the same time period. For instance, while the architecture depicted in Scenes in and around Kyoto possess distinct Japanese artistic qualities, such as the gold leaf clouds shrouding the city and intense use of color, it still bears a strong resemblance to copies of Along the River During Qingming Festival, particularly several Ming-dynasty copies created by unknown artists in the Suzhou market which are recognized to be a conscious emulation of jiehua painter Qiu Ying’s style, dating the piece to somewhere in the late 1500’s prior to the creation of Scenes in and Around Kyoto in the early 1600’s. Comparing both paintings side by side reveals that the Japanese work maintains the same linear perspective, composition, and faultless precision and calculation of lines used in the detailed architectural renderings—all defining qualities of jiehua artwork. These Kano School paintings such as Scenes in and around Kyoto profoundly impacted the course of Japanese art for future generations, allowing one to confidently assert that jiehua left a permanent mark in the evolution of Japan’s artistic landscape.

The lasting impact of Chinese jiehua on Korean art is perhaps no better illustrated than in the Screen of Han Palace and another group of paintings known as Towers and Pavilions and Palace in Sumptuous Colors. All of these Korean works depict architecture reminiscent of Chinese palaces against a landscape background, and were used for decoration of the Joseon palace complexes for their auspicious symbolism of the peaceful, prosperous society of ancient Chinese dynasties. Notably, the architecture shown in Screen of Han Palace, Towers and Pavilions, and Palace in Sumptuous Colors are not necessarily a realistic depiction of historical Han imperial palaces and structures, but rather an imaginary representation of splendid, exotic buildings imitating Chinese pavilions. This technique of using idealized modules of Chinese architectural elements is a direct inheritance from the jiehua modular system developed in Yuan China with roots extending as far back as the Tang period. The linkage of Korean art to Chinese jiehua is thus undeniable, and further proves the important position jiehua holds in the influence of Korean art and East Asian art at large.