Polyketide
Polyketides are a large group of secondary metabolites which either contain alternating carbonyl groups and methylene groups (-CO-CH2-), or are derived from precursors which contain such alternating groups.[1] Many polyketides are medicinal or exhibit acute toxicity.
- Polyketides
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Geldanamycin, a useful antibiotic.
-
Doxycycline, another important antibiotic.
-
Erythromycin, an antibiotic.
-
Aflatoxin B1 one of the most carcinogenic compounds known.
Biosynthesis
Polyketides are produced in bacteria, fungi, plants, and certain marine animals. The biosynthesis involves stepwise condensation of acetyl-CoA or propionyl-CoA with either malonyl-CoA or methylmalonyl-CoA. The condensation reaction is accompanied by the decarboxylation of the extender unit and yields a beta-keto functional group. The first condensation yields an acetoacetyl group, a diketide. Subsequent condensations yield triketides, tetraketide, etc.[2][3]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Orsellins%C3%A4ure_is.svg/620px-Orsellins%C3%A4ure_is.svg.png)
The polyketide chains produced by a minimal polyketide synthase are almost invariably modified. Modifications include reduction of the keto groups to methylene and cyclization. Many of these conversions proceed by the enol tautomers of the polyketide.[4] Polyketides are structurally diverse family.[5] They are broadly divided into three classes: type I polyketides (often macrolides produced by multimodular megasynthases), type II polyketides (often aromatic molecules produced by the iterative action of dissociated enzymes), and type III polyketides (often small aromatic molecules produced by fungal species).
Polyketides are synthesized by multienzyme polypeptides that resemble eukaryotic fatty acid synthase but are often much larger. They include acyl-carrier domains plus an assortment of enzymatic units that can function in an iterative fashion, repeating the same elongation/modification steps (as in fatty acid synthesis), or in a sequential fashion so as to generate more heterogeneous types of polyketides.[2]
Applications
Polyketide antibiotics,[6] antifungals,[7] cytostatics,[8] anticholesteremic,[9] antiparasitics,[7] coccidiostats, animal growth promoters and natural insecticides[10] are in commercial use.
Examples
- Macrolides
- Pikromycin, the first isolated macrolide (1951[11])
- The antibiotics erythromycin A, clarithromycin, and azithromycin
- The antihelminthics avermectin and ivermectin
- The insecticide spinosad (spinosyn)
- Ansamycins
- The antitumor agents geldanamycin and macbecin,
- The antibiotic rifamycin
- Polyenes
- The antifungals amphotericin, nystatin and pimaricin
- Polyethers
- The antibiotic monensin
- Tetracyclines
- The antibiotic agent doxycycline
- Acetogenins
- Others
- The immunosuppressants tacrolimus (FK506) (a calcineurin inhibitor) and sirolimus (rapamycin) (a mTOR inhibitor)
- Radicicol and the pochonin family (HSP90 inhibitors)
- The cholesterol lowering agent lovastatin
- Discodermolide
- Aflatoxin
- Usnic acid
- Anthracimycin
- Anthramycin
See also
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png)
References
- ^ IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "Polyketides". doi:10.1351/goldbook.P04734
- ^ a b Voet, Donald; Voet, Judith G.; Pratt, Charlotte W. (2013). Fundamentals of Biochemistry: Life at the Molecular Level (4th ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 688. ISBN 9780470547847.
- ^ Staunton, James; Weissman, Kira J. (2001). "Polyketide Biosynthesis: A Millennium Review". Natural Product Reports. 18 (4): 380–416. doi:10.1039/a909079g. PMID 11548049.
- ^ Robinson, John A.; Fersht, Alan Roy; Gani, D. (1991). "Polyketide synthase complexes: Their structure and function in antibiotic biosynthesis". Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 332 (1263): 107–114. Bibcode:1991RSPTB.332..107R. doi:10.1098/rstb.1991.0038. PMID 1678529.
- ^ Katz, Leonard (1997). "Manipulation of Modular Polyketide Synthases". Chem. Rev. 97 (7): 2557–2576. doi:10.1021/cr960025+. PMID 11851471.
- ^ "5.13E: Polyketide Antibiotics". Biology LibreTexts. 2017-05-09. Retrieved 2021-07-05.
- ^ a b Ross, Claudia; Opel, Viktoria; Scherlach, Kirstin; Hertweck, Christian (2014). "Biosynthesis of antifungal and antibacterial polyketides by Burkholderia gladioli in coculture with Rhizopus microsporus". Mycoses. 57 Suppl 3: 48–55. doi:10.1111/myc.12246. ISSN 1439-0507. PMID 25250879.
- ^ Jiang, Lin; Pu, Hong; Xiang, Jingxi; Su, Meng; Yan, Xiaohui; Yang, Dong; Zhu, Xiangcheng; Shen, Ben; Duan, Yanwen; Huang, Yong (2018). "Huanglongmycin A-C, Cytotoxic Polyketides Biosynthesized by a Putative Type II Polyketide Synthase From Streptomyces sp. CB09001". Frontiers in Chemistry. 6: 254. Bibcode:2018FrCh....6..254J. doi:10.3389/fchem.2018.00254. ISSN 2296-2646. PMC 6036704. PMID 30013965.
- ^ Chan, Yolande A.; Podevels, Angela M.; Kevany, Brian M.; Thomas, Michael G. (2009). "Biosynthesis of polyketide synthase extender units". Natural Product Reports. 26 (1): 90–114. doi:10.1039/b801658p. ISSN 0265-0568. PMC 2766543. PMID 19374124.
- ^ Kim, Hak Joong; Choi, Sei-hyun; Jeon, Byung-sun; Kim, Namho; Pongdee, Rongson; Wu, Qingquan; Liu, Hung-wen (2014-12-01). "Chemoenzymatic synthesis of spinosyn A". Angewandte Chemie (International ed. In English). 53 (49): 13553–13557. doi:10.1002/anie.201407806. ISSN 1521-3773. PMC 4266379. PMID 25287333.
- ^ Brockmann, Hans; Henkel, Willfried (1951). "Pikromycin, ein bitter schmeckendes Antibioticum aus Actinomyceten" [Pikromycin, a bitter tasting antibiotic from an actinomycete]. Chem. Ber. (in German). 84 (3): 284–288. doi:10.1002/cber.19510840306.