Slavic vocabulary

The following list is a comparison of basic Proto-Slavic vocabulary and the corresponding reflexes in the modern languages, for assistance in understanding the discussion in Proto-Slavic and History of the Slavic languages. The word list is based on the Swadesh word list, developed by the linguist Morris Swadesh, a tool to study the evolution of languages via comparison, containing a set of 207 basic words which can be found in every language and are rarely borrowed. However, the words given as the modern versions are not necessarily the normal words with the given meaning in the various modern languages, but the words directly descended from the corresponding Proto-Slavic word (the reflex). The list here is given both in the orthography of each language, with accent marks added as necessary to aid in pronunciation and Proto-Slavic reconstruction. See below for a capsule summary of how to pronounce each language, as well as some discussion of the conventions used.

Table

Slavic languages

Translation	Late Proto-Slavic	class	Russian		Bulgarian		Czech	Polish	Serbo-Croatian		Slovenian	Macedonian
			Cyrillic	Latin	Cyrillic	Latin			standard (Shtokavian)	Chakavian		Cyrillic	Latin
I	*(j)azъ, (j)ā	prn.	я	ja	аз	az	já	ja	jâ	jå̃	jàz	јас	jas
thou	*ty	prn.	ты	ty	ти	ti	ty	ty	tî	tĩ	tî	ти	ti
he	*onъ	prn.	он, она, оно	on, oná, onó	((той))	((toj))	on, ona, ono		ȍn/ôn, òna, òno	õn, onȁ, onȍ	òn, óna, onộ/ónọ	тој/оној	toj/onoj
we	*my	prn.	мы	my		mi (dial.)	my	my	mî	mĩ	mî	ние	nie
ye	*vy	prn.	вы	vy	(ви́е)	(víe)	vy	wy	vî	vĩ	vî	вие	vie
they	*oni, *ony, *ona	prn.	они́	on'í	те	te	oni, ony, ona	oni, one	oni		oni	тие/оние	tie/onie
this, that	*tъ	prn.	то	tot, ta, to	(това́)	(tová)	ten, ta, to		tâj, tâ, tô	tȁ, tâ, tô/tȍ	tâ, tâ, tộ	ова/она	ova/ona
there	*tamъ		там	tam	там	tam	tam	tam			tam	таму	tamu
who	*kъto	prn.	кто	kto	((кой))	((koi))	kdo	kto	tkȍ; ki		kdọ́	кој	koj
what	*čьto, *čь	prn.	что	čto /što/		što	co	co	štȍ	(Vrg.) ča (<*čь)	kaj	што	što
where	*kъde	prn.	где	gd'e	къде	kəde	kde	gdzie	gdjȅ	kadȅ (Orb.)	kjẹ́	каде	kade
when	*kogъda; *kogъdy	adv./conj.	когда́	kogdá	кога́	kogá	(kdy); OCz. kehdy	kiedy	kàda		kǝdá(j); kdá(j); kadá; kadaj	кога	koga
how; what (kind of)	какъ	adv.; prn.	как	kak; kakój	как	kak	(jak) (OCz. kaký)	(jak) (arch. kaki)	kàko, kakav		káko, kakšen	како, каков/каква/какво	kako, kakov/kakva/kakvo
not	*ne	adv.	не	n'e	не	ne	ne	nie	ne		nè	не	ne
all	*vьśь, *vьśja, vьśe	prn.	весь, вся, всё	v'es', vs'a, vs'o	(вси́чки)	(vsíčki)	(všichni); OCz. veš, všě, vše	(wszyscy); OPl. wszy, wsza, wsze	sȁv, svȁ, svȅ	svȁs, svȁ, svȅ	vǝ̀s, vsà, vsè	се/сето	se/seto
many	*mъnogъ	adj. o	мно́гий	mnógij	мно́го	mnógo (adv.)	mnohý	mnogi	mnȍgī		mnǫ̂gi	многу	mnogu
some	*ne + *koliko		не́сколько	n'éskol'ko	ня́колко	njákolko	několik	kilka	nekoliko		nekoliko	неколку	неколку
few	*malъ		ма́ло	málo	ма́лко	málko	málo	mało	malo		malo	малку	malku
second	*drûgъ	adj. o (c)	друго́й	drugój	друг	drug	druhý	drugi	drûg	drȕgī	drûg	втор	vtor
other	*jь̀nь	prn. (a)	ино́й	inój	---	---	jiný	inny	ȉn			друго	друго
one	*(j)edìnъ, *(j)edьnъ	num. o	оди́н, одна́	od'ín, odná	еди́н	edín	jeden	jeden	jèdan, jȅdna	jedå̃n, jednȁ, jednȍ	eden, ena, eno	еден	еден
two	*d(ъ)va	num.	два	dva, dve, dva	двa	dva	dva, dvě, dvě	dwa, dwie, dwa	dvâ, dvȉje, dvâ	dvå̂, dvî, dvå̂	dvâ	два	dva
three	*trьje, *tri	num.	три	tr'i	три	tri	tři	trzy	trî	trî	triję̂, trî, trî	три	tri
four	*četỳre	num. (a)	четы́ре	č'etýr'e	че́ти́ри	čétíri	čtyři	cztery	čètiri	četȉri	štirje, štiri, štiri	четири	četiri
five	pę̂tь	num. i (c)	пять	p'at'	пет	pet	pět	pięć	pêt	pêt	pę̂t	пет	pet
big, great	*velìkъ; velьkъ	adj. o	вели́кий	v'el'ík'ij	вели́к	velík	velký	wielki	vȅlikī, vȅlikā, vȅlikō	vȅlik, velikȁ, velikȍ	vélik, velíka	голем, велики	golem, veliki
long	*dь̀lgъ	adj. o (a)	до́лгий	dólg'ij	дъ́лъг	dǝ́lǝg	dlouhý	długi	dȕg	dȕg	dôļg, dółga	долг/долго	dolg/dolgo
wide	*širokъ		широ́кий	širók'ij	широ́к	širók	široký	szeroki	širok		širok	широк, широко/а/и	širok, široko/a/i
thick	*tъlstъ		то́лстый	tólstyj	тлъст	tlǝst	tlustý	tłusty			debel, tolst	дебел, дебело/а/и	debel, debelo/a/i
heavy	*tęžъkъ	adj. o	тя́жкий	t'ážkij	те́жък	téžǝk	těžký	ciężki	téžak, téška	tȅžak, tēškȁ	téžǝk, téžka; težâk	тежок, тешко/а/и	težok, teško/a/i
small	*màlъ	adj. o (a)	ма́лый	mályj	(ма́лък); мал	(málǝk); mal	malý	mały	mȁo	må̃lī	mâli, majhen	малечoк/а/ки/ко, мал, мало/а/и.	malećok/a/ki/ko, mal, malo/a/i
short	*kortъ̀kъ	adj. o (b)	коро́ткий	korótk'ij	кра́тък	krátǝk	krátký	krótki	krátak, krátka	krå̂tak, krå̄tkȁ, krå̂tko; krãtak, krãtka, krãtko	krátǝk	кратко/а/и, краток	kratko/a/i, kratok
narrow	*ǫzъkъ	adj. o	у́зкий	úzk'ij; úzok, uzká, úzko	((те́сен))	((tésen))	úzký	wąski	ȕzak, ȕska/uskȁ	ȕsak, uskȁ, ȕsko	ǫ́zǝk, ǫ́zka	тесно/на/ни/ен	tesno/na/ni/en, teško/a/i
thin	*tь̏nъkъ	adj. o (c)	то́нкий	tónk'ij; tónok, tanká, tónko	тъ́нък	tǝ́nǝk	tenký	cienki	tȁnak, tànka/tánka	tȁnak, tankȁ, tânko	tǝnǝ́k, tǝnkà	тенок, тенко/а/и	tenok, tenko/a/i
husband	*mǫ̂žь	m. jo (c)	муж	muž	мъж	mǝž	muž	mąż	mûž (mûža)		mǫ̂ž (možâ)	сопруг	soprug
woman/wife	*ženà	f. ā (b)	жена́	ž'ená /žená/	жена́	žená	žena	żona	žèna (acc. žènu)	ženȁ (acc. ženȕ)	žéna	сопруга	sopruga
man (human)	*čelověkъ	m. o	челове́к	č'elov'ék	чове́к	čelovék; čovék	člověk	człowiek	čòvjek (čòvjeka); čȍvjek (čovjèka)	čovȉk (čokȉka)	člóvẹk (človẹ́ka)	човек	čovek
child	*dětę		дитя́	d'it'á	дете́	deté	dítě	dziecko, dziecię	dijete		otrok, dete	дете	dete
mother	*mati		мать	mat'	ма́йка	májka	matka	matka	majka, mater		mati	мајка	majka
father	*otьcь		оте́ц	ot'éc	баща́, та́тко	baštá, tátko	otec	ojciec	otac		oče	татко, отец	tatko, otec
wild animal	*zvě̂rь	m. i (c)	зверь	zv'er'		zvjar	zvěř	zwierz, zwierzę	zvȉjer f. (i)	zvîr (zvîri) f. (i)	zvę̂r (zverî)	ѕвер	dzver
fish	*ryba		ры́ба	rýba	ри́ба	ríba	ryba	ryba	riba		riba	риба	riba
bird	*pъtica, *pъtъka		пти́ца	pt'íca	пти́ца	ptíca	pták	ptak	ptica		ptica	птица	ptica
dog	*pьsъ		соба́ка, пёс	sobáka, p'os	пес, ку́че	pes, kúče	pes	pies	pas		pes	куче, пес	kuče, pes
louse	*vъ̂šь	f. i (c)	вошь	voš' /voš/ (vš'i)	въ́шка	vǝ́ška	veš	wesz	vâš (vȁši); ûš (ȕši)		ùš (ušî); ûš	вошка	voška
snake	*zmьjà	f. iā	змея́	zm'ejá	змия́	zmijá	zmije	żmija	zmìja	zmijȁ	kača	змија	zmija
worm	*čьrvь		червь	č'erv'	че́рвей	čérvej	červ	czerw, robak	crv		črv	црв	crv
tree	*dervo, *dьrvo		де́рево	d'ér'evo	дърво́	dǝrvó	strom	drzewo	drvo		drevo	дрво	drvo
forest	*lěsъ		лес	l'es	гора́	gorá	les	las	šuma, dubrava		gozd, les, šuma, hosta, meja	шума	šuma
stick	*palica, *palъka		па́лка	pálka	пръ́чка	prǝ́čka	hůl	laska / pałka / kij	štap, palica		palica	стап, стапче	stap, stapče
fruit	*plodъ		плод	plod	плод	plod	ovoce (plod)	owoc (płód)	voće, plod		sadež, plod	oвошје	ovošje
seed	*sěmę		се́мя	s'ém'a	се́ме	séme	semeno	nasiono/nasienie, ziarno, siemię	sjeme		seme	семе, семенка	seme, semenka
leaf	*listъ		лист	l'ist	листо́	listó	list	liść	list		list	лист	list
root	*korenь		ко́рень	kór'en'	ко́рен	kóren	kořen	korzeń	korijen		koren, korenina	корен	koren
bark (of a tree)	*kora		кора́	korá	кора́	korá	kůra	kora	kora		skorja	кора	kora
flower	*květъ		цвето́к	cv'etók	цве́те	cvéte	květ	kwiat	cvijet		cvet, cvetlica	цвет	cvet
grass	*trava		трава́	travá	трева́	trevá	tráva	trawa	trava		trava	трева	treva
rope	*ǫže		верёвка	v'er'óvka	въже́	vǝžé	provaz	sznur, lina, powróz	konop, špaga, uže		vrv, konop	јаже, ортома	jaže, ortoma
skin	*koža		ко́жа	kóža	ко́жа	kóža	kůže	kożuch	koža		koža	кожа	koža
meat	*męso		мя́со	m'áso	ме́со	méso	maso	mięso	meso		meso	месо	meso
blood	*kry		кровь	krov'	кръв	krǝv	krev	krew	krv		kri	крв	krv
bone	*kostь		кость	kost'	кост, ко́кал	kost, kókal	kost	kość	kost		kost	коска	koska
fat (noun)	*sadlo		са́ло	sálo	слани́на	slanína	tuk	tłuszcz, sadło	masnoča, masti, salo		mast, tolšča, maščoba, salo	маст, сало	mast, salo
egg	*âje; *ajьce	n. jo (c); n. jo	яйцо́	jajcó	яйце́	jajcé	vejce	jajo; jajko	jáje; jájce	jå̂je	jájce	јајце	jajce
horn	*rôgъ m. o (c)		рог	rog	рог	rog	roh	róg (rogu)	rôg (rȍga)		rộg (rộga/rogâ)	рог	rog
feather	*però	n. o (b)	перо́	p'eró	перо́	peró	péro	pióro	pèro	perȍ	pérọ (pérạ); perộ (perę̂sa)	пердув	perduv
hair	*vôlsъ	m. o (c)	во́лос	vólos (vólosa)	---	---	vlas	włos	vlâs (vlâsa)	vlå̂s (vlå̂sa)	lâs (lâsa/lasû)	влакно	vlakno
hair, braided hair	*kosà	f. ā (c)		kosá (kósu)	коса́	kosá	OCz. kosa	OPl. kosa	kòsa (acc. kȍsu)	(Novi) kosȁ (acc. kosȕ/kȍsu)	lasje	косa	kosa
head	*golvà	f. ā (c)	голова́	golová (acc. gólovu)	глава́	glavá	hlava	głowa	gláva (acc. glâvu)	glå̄vȁ (acc. glå̂vu)	gláva	глава	glava
ear	*ûxo	n. o (c)	у́хо	úxo, pl. úš'i /úšy/	ухо́	uxó, pl. uší	ucho	ucho	ȕho/ȕvo, pl. f. ȕši	ȕho (ȕha), pl. m. ȕši	uhộ (ušę́sa)	уво, уше	uvo, uše
eye	*ȍko	n. o (c)	глаз, о́ко	óko (poet.)	око́	okó	oko	oko	ȍko		okộ (očę̂sa)	око	oko
nose	*nôsъ	m. o (c)	нос	nos	нос	nos	nos	nos	nôs (nȍsa)		nộs (nộsa/nọsâ/nọsû)	нос	nos
mouth	*ūstà	pl. n. o (b)	уста́	ustá (poet.)	уста́	ustá	ústa	usta	ústa	ũstå̄; ũsta	ústa	уста	usta
tooth	*zǫ̂bъ	m. o (c)	зуб	zub	зъб	zǝb	zub	ząb	zûb (zûba)		zǫ̂b (zǫ̂ba, zobû)	заб	zab
tongue/language	*ęzỳkъ	m. o (a)	язы́к	jazýk	ези́к	ezík	jazyk	język	jèzik	jazȉk	jézik (jezíka)	јазик	jazik
nail (of finger/toe), claw	*nȍgъtь	m. i/io (c)	но́готь	nógot' (nógt'a)	но́кът	nókǝt	nehet	paznokieć (OPl. paznogiedź), pazur	nȍkat (nȍkta); nogat (nokta)	nȍhat (nȍhta)	nộhǝt (nộhta); nǫ̂hǝt/nǫ̂gǝt (nǫ̂hta); nohǝ̀t (nohtà)	нокт, канџа	nokt, kandža
foot, leg	*noga	f. ā (c)	нога́	nogá (nógu)		nogá	noha	noga	nòga (nȍgu)	nogȁ (nȍgu)	nóga	стапало, нога	stapalo, noga
knee	*kolě̀no	n. o (a)	коле́но	kol'éno	коля́но	kol'áno	koleno	kolano	kòljeno	kolȉno	kolẹ́nọ	колено/ница	koleno/nica
hand	*rǭkà	f. ā (c)	рука́	ruká	ръка́	rǝká	ruka	ręka	rúka (rûku)	rūkȁ (rûku)	róka	рака	raka
wing	*krīdlò	n. o (b)	крыло́	kryló	крило́	kriló	křídlo	skrzydło	krílo	(Orb.) krīlȍ	krílọ	крило	krilo
belly	*bŗûxo, *bŗûxъ	m./n. o (c)	брю́хо	br'úxo	---	---	břicho	brzuch	trbuh	---	trebuh	стомак, желудник	stomak, želudnik
guts	*červo		вну́тренности, кишки́	vnútr'ennost'i, k'išk'í	въ́трешности, черва́	vǝ́trešnosti, červá	vnitřnosti, střeva	wnętrzności (ścierwo)	crijevo		črevo, drobovje	црева	creva
neck	*šija, *šьja		ше́я	š'éja /šéja/	ши́я	šíja	krk	szyja, kark	vrat		vrat	врат	vrat
shoulder	*pletjè	n. jo (b)	плечó	plečó		pléšti/pleští pl.	plec	plecy pl.	pléće, rame	(Novi) plećȅ	pléče, rame	рамо	ramo
breast	*grǫ̂dь	f. i (c)	грудь	grud'	гръд	grǝd	prsa, hruď	pierś; OPl. grędzi (pl.)	grûd, prsa		prsi, grod	града	grada
heart	*sь̏rdьce	n. jo (c)	се́рдце	s'érdc'e /s'érce/	сърце́	sǝrcé	srdce	serce (OPl. serdce)	sȑce (sȑca)		srcę̂	срце	srce
liver	*ę̄trò	n. o (b)		játro/jatró		jatró	játra (pl.)	(wątroba)	jȅtra (pl.)	(Orb.) jiẽtra (pl.)	ję́tra (pl.)	џигер, црн дроб	džiger, crn drob
to drink	*pìti	v.	пить	p'it'	пи́я	píja	píti	pić	pȉti (pȉjēm)	pȉti (pījȅš)	píti (píjem)	да пие	da pie
to eat	*ě̀sti	v.	есть	jest'	ям	jam	jísti	jeść	jȅsti (jȅdem)	ȉsti/ĩsti (3sg. idẽ)	jẹ́sti (jẹ́m)	да јаде	da jade
to gnaw	*grỳzti	v. (c)	грызть	gryzt'	---	---	hryzat	gryźć	grȉsti (grízēm)	grȉsti (2sg. grīzȅš)	grísti (grízem)	да гризе	da grize
to suck	*sъsàti	v.	соса́ть	sosát' (sosú, sos'ót)	(су́ча)	(súča)	sát (saji)	ssać (ssę)	sisati		sǝsáti (sǝsâm)	да цица	da cica
to spit	*pjь̀vati	v. (a)	плева́ть	pl'evát' (pljujú, plujót)	плю́я	pljúja; pljúvam	plivat (plivu)	pluć (pluję)	pljùvati (pljȕjēm)		pljúvati (pljújem)	да плука	da pluka
to vomit	*bljьvàti	v.	блева́ть	bl'evát' (bljujú, bljujót)		bǝ́lvam	blít (bliju)	wymiotować, zwracać; OPl. bluć (bluj̨ę)	bljùvati (bljȕjēm), povračati	(Orb.) bljȕvat (3sg. bljûje/bljȕva)	bljǝváti/bljuváti/bljúti (bljúvam/bljújem)	да повраќа	da povrakja
to breathe	*dyxati	v.	дышать	dyshat' (dial.)	ди́шам	díšam	dýchat (dýchám)	oddychać; dychać (colloq.), dyszeć	dísati (dîšēm/dîhām)	dȉhati (2sg. dȉšeš)	díhati (dîham)	да дише	da diše
to laugh	*smьjàti sę	v. (c)	смея́ться	sm'eját's'a (smejús', smejóts'a)	сме́я се	sméja se	smát se (směju se)	śmiać się (śmieję się)	smìjati se (sjìjēm se)	(Vrg.) smījȁti se (smijȅš se)	smẹ́jati/smẹjáti se (smẹ́jem/smẹ́jam/smẹjím se)	да се смее	da se smee
to see	*vìděti	v. (a)	ви́деть	v'íd'et' (1sg. v'ížu, 3sg. v'íd'it)	ви́ждам	vídja, víždam	vidět (vidím)	widzieć	vȉdjeti (vȉdīm)	vìti (2sg. vȉdīš)	vídẹti (vîdim)	да види	da vidi
to hear	*slušati		слу́шать	slúšat'	слу́шам, чу́вам	slúšam, čúvam	slyšet (slyším)	słyszeć	slušati		slišati (slišim)	да слушне	da slušne
to know, be familiar with	*znàti	v. (a)	знать	znat' (znáju)	зна́я; знам	znája; znam	znát (znám)	znać	znȁti (znâm)	znȁti (2sg. znå̂š)	znáti (znâm)	да знае, да познава	da znae, da poznava
to know, understand	*věděti	v.	ведать	v'édat'	---	---	vědět (vím)	wiedzieć (wiem)	znati		vẹ́dẹti (vẹ́m)	да разбере	da razbere
to think	*mysliti		мы́слить	mýsl'it'	ми́сля	míslja	myslet (myslím)	myśleć	misliti		misliti (mislim)	да мисли	da misli
to smell	*čuti		ню́хать, чу́ять	n'úkhat', čújat'	мири́ша, ду́ша	miríša, dúša	vonět (voním), čichat (čichám)	czuć	mirisati		vohati	да мирисне	da mirisne
to fear	*bojati sę		боя́ться	boját's'a	страху́вам се	straxúvam se	bát se	bać się (boję się)	bojati se		bati se	да се плаши	da se plaši
to sleep	*sъpati		спать	spat'	спя	spja	spát	spać	spavati		spati	да спие	da spie
to live	*žìti	v. (c)	жить	ž'it' /žyt'/	живе́я	živéja	žít	żyć	žívjeti, 1sg. žívīm	žīvȉti, 2sg. žīvȅš	živeti	да живее	da živee
to die	*merti		умира́ть	um'irát'	уми́рам	umíram	umírat	umierać, mrzeć	umrjeti, umriti		umreti	да умре	da umre
to kill	*ubiti		убива́ть	ub'ivát'	уби́вам	ubívam	zabíjet	zabijać, ubijać	ubiti		ubiti	да убие	da ubie
to fight	*boriti sę		боро́ться	borót's'a	бо́ря се, би́я се	bórja se, bír se	bojovat	walczyć, bić się	boriti se, tući se		boriti se, biti se, bojevati se	да се бори, да се тепа	da se bori, da se tepa
to hunt	*loviti		охо́титься	oxót'it's'a	лову́вам	lovúvam	lovit	polować, łowić	loviti		loviti	да лови	da lovi
to hit	*udariti	v.	ударя́ть	udar'át'	у́дрям	údrjam	udeřit	uderzać	ùdariti, 1sg. ùdarīm		udariti	да удри	da udri
to cut	*sěkti, *strigti, *rězati		ре́зать, руби́ть	r'ézat', rub'ít'	ре́жа, сека́	réža, seká	řezat	ciąć, strzyc, OPl. rzezać (arch.)	rezati		rezati	да сече	da seće
to split			разделя́ть	razd'el'át'	разде́лям	razdéljam	rozdělit	podzielić, rozdzielić	podijeliti, razdijeliti		razdeliti	да подели, да раздели	da podeli, da razdeli
to stab	*bosti, *kolti		коло́ть	kolót'	буча́, прому́швам, пробо́ждам	bučá, promúšvam, probóždam	píchnout	pchnąć, bóść (coll. kolnąć)	ubosti, zabosti		zabosti, prebosti	да убоде	da ubode
to scratch	*česati, *drapati		цара́пать	carápat'	че́ша, дра́скам	čéša, dráskam	škrábat	drapać, skrobać, czesać	češati, grebati		praskati	да гребе, драска, чеша, драпа	da grebe, draska, ćeša, drapa
to dig	*kopati		копа́ть	kopát'	копа́я	kopája	kopat	kopać	kopati		kopati	да копа	da kopa
to swim, sail	*pluti; *plỳti	v.; v. (a)	плыть	plyt' (plyvú, plyv'ót)	плу́вам	plúvam	plout (pluju)	(pływać), pluć	plȉti (plȉjēm)		plúti (plújem/plóvem)	да плива, да едри	da pliva, da edri
to swim, sail	*plàvati	v. (a)	пла́вать	plávat'	пла́вам	plávam	plavat	pływać, pławić się, OPl. pławać	plivati		plávati (plâvam)	да плива, да едри	da pliva, da edri
to fly	*letěti		лета́ть	l'etát'	летя́	letjá	létat	latać, lecieć	letjeti		leteti	да лета	da leta
to walk	*xoditi	v.	ходи́ть	xod'ít'	хо́дя	xódja	chodit	chodzić	hòdati (hȍdīm)	hodȉti	hóditi (hǫ́dim)	да оди	da odi
to go	*jьti	v.	идти́	idt'í (idú, id'ót)		ída	jít (jdu)	iść (idę)	ìći (ȉdēm)		íti (ídem)	да замине	da замине
to come			приходи́ть, прийти́	pr'ixod'ít', pr'ijt'í	и́двам	ídvam	přicházet, přijít	przychodzić, przyjść	doći, prići		priti	да дојде	da dojde
to lie (as in a bed)	*ležati		лежа́ть	l'ežát'	лежа́	ležá	ležet	leżeć	ležati, lijegati		ležati	да лаже, да мами	da laże, da mami
to sit	*sěsti		сиде́ть	s'id'ét'	седя́	sedjá	sedět	siedzieć	sjediti		sesti	да седне	da sedne
to stand	*stati		стоя́ть	stoját'	стоя́	stojá	stát	stać	stajati		vstati	да стане	da stane
to turn	*vьrtě̀ti	v. (c)	верте́ть	v'ert'ét' (1sg. v'erčú, 3sg. v'ért'it)	въртя́	vǝrtjá	vrtět	(obracać), wiercić	vŕtjeti (vŕtīm)	vrtȉti (2sg. vrtĩš)	vrtẹ́ti (vrtím)	да врти, да заврти	da vrti, da zavrti
to turn, return	*vortìti	v. (b)	воротить, вернуть	vorot'ít' (1sg. voročú, 3sg. vorót'it) vernut'	---	---	vrátit	wrócić	vrátiti (1sg. vrâtīm)	vrå̄tȉti (2sg. vrå̃tīš)	vrniti	да се врати	da se vrati
to fall	*pasti		па́дать	pádat'	па́дам	pádam	padat	spadać/padać, paść/spaść	pasti		pasti	да падне	da padne
to give	*dati		дава́ть	davát'	да́вам	dávam	dávat	dawać, dać	dati		dati	да даде	da dade
to hold	*dьržati		держа́ть	d'eržát'	държа́	dǝržá	držet	trzymać, dzierżyć	držati		držati	да држи	da drži
to squeeze	*tiskati; *žęti	v. (b)	сжима́ть	sž'imát' /žžymát'/	сти́скам, ма́чкам	stískam, máčkam	mačkat	ściskać	stiskati		stiskati	да стеска, да стега	da steska, da stega
to rub	*terti		тере́ть	t'er'ét'	три́я, тъ́ркам	tríja, tǝ́rkam	třít	trzeć	trljati		treti, drgniti	да трие	da trie
to wash	*myti		мыть	myt'	ми́я, пера́	míja, perá	mýt	myć	oprati, umiti		umiti, oprati	да мие, да пере	da mie, da pere
to wipe			вытира́ть	vyt'irát'	бъ́рша, три́я	bǝ́rša, tríja	vytírat	wycierać	obrisati, brisati		brisati, otreti	да бриши	da briši
to pull	*pьxati		тяну́ть	t'anút'	дъ́рпам, те́гля, вла́ча	dǝ́rpam, téglja, vláča	táhnout	ciągnąć	potegnuti		vleči, potegniti	да влече, да тегне	da vleće, da tegne
to push			толка́ть, пиха́ть	tolkát', p'ixát'	нати́скам, бу́там	natískam, bútam	tlačit	pchać	gurnuti		potistniti, poriniti	да турка	da turka
to throw	*kydati, *mesti, *vergti v.		броса́ть, кида́ть	brosát', k'idát'	хвъ́рлям	xvǝ́rljam	házet; OCz. vrci (1sg. vrhu)	rzucać	|veȑć, 2sg. veȑžeš	vreči	да фрли	da frli
to tie	*vę̄zàti	v. (b)	вяза́ть	v'azát'	връ́звам	vrǝ́zvam	vázat	wiązać	vézati, 1sg. véžēm	vēzȁti, 2sg. vēžeš	vezati	да врзе	da vrze
to sew	*šiti		шить	š'it' /šyt'/	ши́я	šíja	šít	szyć	šivati		sejati	да сошие	da sošie
to read, count	*čitati	v.	чита́ть	č'itát'	---	---	číst (čtu)	czytać	čìtati (čìtām)	čȉtati (2sg. čȉtå̄š)	brati (berem), čítati (čítam)	да чита, да рачуна	da čita, da računa
to speak, talk	*govorìti	v.	говори́ть	govor'ít'		govórja	mluvit, hovořit	OPl. goworzyć; gaworzyć	govòriti (gòvorīm)	govȍrīti (2sg. govȍrīš)	govoríti (govorím)	да разговара, да зборува	da razgovara, da zboruva
to show	*kāzàti	v.	каза́ть	kazát'		káža	ukázat	kazać	kázati (kâžēm)	kå̄zȁti (2sg. kå̃žeš)	kázati (kážem)	да покаже	da pokaže
to sing	*pěti	v. (c)	петь	p'et' (pojú, pojót)	пе́я	péja (2sg. péeš)	zpívat (zpívám)	piać (pieję)	pjevati		pẹ́ti (pójem); pójati (pójam/pójem)	да пее	da pee
to play	*jьgrati		игра́ть	igrát'	игра́я	igrája	hrát	grać	igrati		igrati	да игра	da igra
to flow	*tekti		течь	t'eč'	тека́	teká	téct	ciec, cieknąć	teči		teči	да тече	da teče
to freeze	*mьrznǫti		замерзáть	zam'erzát'	замръ́звам	zamrǝ́zvam	zamrznout	marznąć	zamrznuti		zamrzniti	да замрзне	da zamrzne
to swell	*puxnǫti		пу́хнуть	púxnut'	подпу́хвам, оти́чам, поду́вам се	podpúxvam, otíčam, podúvam se	opuchnout, otéct	puchnąć	oteknuti, oteći		oteči	да потечи	da poteči
sun	*sъlnьce		со́лнце	sólnc'e /sónce/	слъ́нце	slǝ́nce	slunce	słońce	sunce		sonce	сонце	sonce
moon	*luna, *měsęcь		луна́, ме́сяц	luná, m'és'ac	луна́	luná	měsíc	księżyc, OPl. miesiąc	mjesec		mesec	месечина	mesećina
star	*gvězda		звезда́	zv'ezdá	звезда́	zvezdá	hvězda	gwiazda	zvijezda		zvezda	ѕвезда	dzvezda
water	*vodà	f. ā (c)	вода́	vodá (acc. vódu)	вода́	vodá	voda	woda	vòda (acc. vȍdu)	vodȁ (acc. vȍdu)	vóda	вода	voda
rain	*dъždь		дождь	dožd' /došš', došt'/	дъжд	dǝžd	déšť	deszcz, OPl. deżdż (gen. deszczu/dżdżu)	kiša		dež	дожд	dožd
river	*rěka		река́	r'eká	река́	reká	řeka	rzeka	rijeka		reka	река	reka
lake	*(j)ezero		о́зеро	óz'ero	е́зеро	ézero	jezero	jezioro	jezero		jezero	езеро	ezero
sea	*more, *morě		мо́ре	mór'e	море́	moré	moře	morze	more		morje	море	more
salt	*solь		соль	sol'	сол	sol	sůl	sól	sol		sol	сол	sol
stone	*kamy		ка́мень	kám'en'	ка́мък	kámǝk	kámen	kamień (dim. kamyk)	kamen		kamen	камен	kamen
sand	*pěsъkъ		песо́к	p'esók	пя́сък	pjásǝk	písek	piasek	pijesak		pesek	песок	pesok
dust	*porxъ		пыль	pyl'	прах	prax	prach	pył, kurz	prašina, prah		prah	прав, прашина	prav, prašina
earth	*zemľà	f. jā (b/c)	земля́	z'eml'á (acc. z'éml'u)	земя́	zemjá	země	ziemia	zèmlja (acc. zȅmlju)	zemļȁ (acc. zȅmļu)	zémlja	земја	zemja
cloud	*tǫča		ту́ча, о́блако	túča, óblako	о́блак	óblak	oblak	chmura, obłok	oblak		oblak	облак	oblak
fog	*mьglà		мгла, туман	mgla, tuman	мъгла́	mǝglá	mlha	mgła	magla		megla	магла	magla
sky	*nȅbo		нёбо	n'óbo	небе́	nebé	nebe	niebo	nebo		nebo	небо	nebo
wind	*vě̀trъ	m. o (a)	ве́тер	v'ét'er	вя́тър	vjátǝr	vítr	wiatr	vjȅtar (vjȅtra)	vȉtar (vȉtra)	vệtǝr	ветер	veter
snow	*sněgъ		снег	sn'eg	сняг	snjag	sníh	śnieg	snijeg		sneg	снег	sneg
ice	*ledъ		лёд	l'od	лед	led	led	lód	led		led	мраз, лед	mraz, led
smoke	*dymъ		дым	dym	дим, пу́шек	dim, púšek	dým	dym	dim		dim	чад, дим	čad, dim
fire	*ognь		ого́нь	ogón'	о́гън	ógǝn	oheň	ogień (ognia)	vatra		ogenj	оган	ogan
ash	*pepelъ		пе́пел	p'ép'el	пе́пел	pépel	popel	popiół	pepeo		pepel	пепел	pepel
to burn	*gorěti, *paliti		горе́ть, пыла́ть	gor'ét', pylát'	горя́, паля́	gorjá, paljá	hořet	palić, arch. gorzeć	goriti		goreti	да гори	da gori
way	*pǫ̃tь	m. i (b)	путь	put'	път	pǝt	pout' (fem.)	droga, OPl. pąć	pût (púta)	pũt (pũta)	pǫ́t	пат	pat
mountain	*gorà	fem. ā (c)	гора́	gorá	гора́	gorá	hora	góra	gòra (gȍru), planina	gorȁ (gȍru)	góra	гора, планина	gora, planina
red	*čьrmьnъ	adj. o		č'er'emnój/č'er'ómnyj (dial.)	---	---	čermný/črmný (Kott)	(dial. czermny)	crveno		črmljen	црвено	crveno
red	*čьrv(j)enъ	adj. o		č'er'evl'onyj (obs.)	черве́н	červén	červený	czerwony, czerwień	cr̀ven		rdeč	црвен/но/на/ни	crven/no/na/ni
green	*zelẽnъ	adj. o (b)	зелёный	z'el'ónyj	зеле́н	zelén	zelený	zielony, zieleń	zèlen, zelèna, zelèno	zelẽn, zelenȁ, zelenȍ	zelèn, zeléna	зелен/но/на/ни	zelen/no/na/ni
yellow	*žьltъ	adj. o	жёлтый	ž'óltyj /žóltyj/	жълт	žǝlt	žlutý	żółty, żółć, żółcień	žût, f. žúta	žût, f. žūtȁ, n. žûto	rumen, žôłt, žółta	жолт/то/та/ти	żolt/то/та/ти
white	*bělъ		бе́лый	b'élyj	бял	bjal	bílý	biały, biel	bijelo		bel	бел/о/а/и	bel/о/а/и
black	*čьrnъ		чёрный	č'órnyj	че́рен	čéren	černý	czarny, czerń	crno		črn	crn/о/а/и	crn/о/а/и
night	*noktь		ночь	noč'	нощ	nošt	noc	noc	noć		noč	ноќ	nokj
day	*dьnь		день	d'en'	ден	den	den	dzień	dan		dan	ден	den
year	*godъ, *rokъ		год	god	годи́на	godína	rok	rok	godina		leto	година	godina
warm	*teplъ, *toplъ		тёплый	t'óplyj	то́пъл	tópǝl	teplý	ciepły	toplo		toplo	топло	toplo
cool, cold	*xoldьnъ	adj. o (c)	холо́дный	xolódnyj	хла́ден	xláden	chladný	chłodny	hládǝn	hlå̂dan	hládǝn	ладно	ladno
full	*pьlnъ		по́лный	pólnyj	пъ́лен	pǝ́len	plný	pełny, pełen	pun		poln	полно	polno
new	*novъ		но́вый	nóvyj	нов	nov	nový	nowy	nov		nov	ново	novo
old	*starъ		ста́рый	stáryj	стар	star	starý	stary	star		star	старо	staro
good	*dobrъ		хоро́ший, добрый	xoróš'ij, dobryj	добъ́р	dobǝ́r	dobrý	dobry	dobar		dober	добар, добро	dobar, dobro
bad	*zъlъ	adj. o	злой	zloj; zol, zla, zlo	лош	loš	zlý	zły	zȁo, zlȁ, zlȍ		zǝ̀ł, zlà; zâl	лош, зол, зла	loš, zol, zla
rotten	*gnjilъ		гнило́й	gn'ilój	гнил	gnil	shnilý	zgniły	pokvaren		gnil	гнило	gnilo
dirty			гря́зный	gr'áznyj	мръ́сен	mrǝ́sen	špinavý	brudny	prljav, zmazan		umazan	валкано	valkan
straight	*prostъ, *pravъ		прямо́й	pr'amój	прав	prav	přímý	prosty; prawy	ravan		raven	прав, рамен	prav, ramen
round	*krǫglъ		кру́глый	krúglyj	кръ́гъл	krǝ́gǝl	kulatý / okrouhlý	krągły/okrągły	okruglo		okrogel	кружно, округло	kružno, okruglo
sharp	*ostrъ		о́стрый	óstryj	о́стър	óstǝr	ostrý	ostry	oštro		oster	остро	ostro
dull	*tǫpъ		тупо́й	tupój	тъп	tup	tupý	tępy	tup		top	тапо	tapo
smooth	*gladъkъ		гла́дкий, ро́вный	gládk'ij, róvnyj	гла́дък, ра́вен	gládǝk, ráven	hladký	gładki	gladak		gladek	мазно	mazno
wet	*mokrъ		мо́крый	mókryj	мо́кър	mókǝr	mokrý	mokry	mokar		moker	мокро	mokro
dry	*suxъ		сухо́й	suxój	сух	sux	suchý	suchy	suh		suh	суво	suvo
correct			пра́вильный	práv'il'nyj	пра́вилен	právilen	správný	poprawny	pravilan		pravilen	правилно, точно	pravilno, točno
near	*blizъ		бли́зкий	bl'ízk'ij	бли́зък	blízǝk	blízký	bliski	blizu		blizu, blizek	близу, блиско	blizu, blisko
far	*dalekъ		далёкий	dal'ók'ij	дале́чен	daléčen	daleký	daleki	daleko		deleč, daljni	далеку	daleku
right	*pravъ		пра́вый	právyj	де́сен	désen	pravý	prawy	desno, pravo		desen	десно	desno
left	*lěvъ		ле́вый	lévyj	ляв	ljav	levý	lewy	lijevo		levi	лево	levo
at	*po, *u	prep./pref.	при, у	pr'i, u	при, у, на	pri, u, na	při, u	przy, u	u; u-		pri	кaj	kaj
in(to)	*vъ(n)	prep.	в	v; vn-	в	v	v; v(n)-	w(e); wn-	u; va-		v	в	v
with	*sъ(n)		с	s	с(със)	s(sǝs)	s	z	s, sa		s, z	со	so
and	(j)ь, *a		и, а	i, a	и, а	i, a	a, i	i, a	i		in	и, а	i, a
if	*(j)ako		е́сли	jésl'i	ако́	akó	jestli	jeśli, jeżeli	ako, ukoliko		če, ako	ако	ako
because	*dělja, *dьlja, děljьma		потому́ что	potomú čto /što/	защо́то	zaštóto	protože	bo, dlatego że, ponieważ	zato (što, jer), stoga		zato, zato ker	затоа што, зашто	zatoa što, zašto
name	*(j)ьmę		и́мя	ím'a	и́ме	íme	jméno	imię, arch. miano	ime		ime	име	ime

Conventions in the table

• Common Slavic accents follow Serbo-Croatian conventions: á (long rising), à (short rising), â (long falling), ȁ (short falling), ā (length in unstressed syllable). The Late Common Slavic neoacute is indicated as ã. This was pronounced as short rising in ь̃ ъ̃; long rising in ẽ õ in most languages, but short rising in Serbo-Croatian and Slovenian; and consistently long rising over other vowels.
• The accent pattern (a, b or c) of Common Slavic nouns, verbs and adjectives is indicated. These patterns are as follows: a = consistent root accent; b = predominant suffix accent; c = mobile accent.
• Nouns are given in the nominative singular; a form in parentheses is genitive singular except as indicated (acc. = accusative singular, pl. = nominative plural).
• Verbs are given in the infinitive (but the first singular present in Bulgarian, which has no infinitives). A form in parentheses is first singular present except as indicated (2sg. = second singular, 3sg. = third singular). A second form in parentheses is third singular present.
• When multiple forms of an adjective are given, the order is masculine, feminine, neuter.
• Chakavian forms are given in the Vrgada dialect except as indicated (Novi = Novi dialect, Orb. = Orbanići dialect).

Transcription of Russian and Bulgarian

Transcription of Bulgarian follows the standard conventions for academic transliteration of Cyrillic, with the exception that Cyrillic ъ is represented as ǝ instead of ă for ease of reading, particularly when combined with a stress mark (ǝ́ instead of ắ). This is a one-to-one transliteration that directly represents the spelling of Cyrillic. This transliteration also represents Bulgarian phonology quite well (unlike the situation in Russian).

Transcription of Russian is based on the same standard, but deviates from it in order to consistently represent palatalization (always written with a following apostrophe, e.g. l', n', t', v') and the phoneme /j/ (always written j), both of which are spelled in multiple ways in Cyrillic. The following indicates how to convert between the two:

Cyrillic letters	Letter class	Academic transliteration	This article's transcription
а э ы о у	Non-palatal vowels	a è y o u	a e y o u
я е и ё ю	Palatal vowels	ja e i ë ju	If following a consonant letter, a e i o u with preceding apostrophe ('); elsewhere, ja je ji jo ju.
й ў	Semivowels	j ŭ	same
ь	Soft sign	'	same
ъ	Hard sign	''	not written
щ	A consonant sign	šč	šš'

The result is that this article's transcription is almost directly phonemic, making it significantly easier for readers not familiar with the complications of Cyrillic spelling. Note that the transcription used here continues the standard practice of representing the Cyrillic letters ы и as y i, although they are normally considered allophones of each other. This is because the pronunciation of the two letters is significantly different, and Russian ы normally continues Common Slavic *y [ɨ], which was a separate phoneme.

The letter щ is conventionally written št in Bulgarian, šč in Russian. This article writes šš' in Russian to reflect the modern pronunciation [ɕɕ].

Both transcriptions indicate stress with an acute accent (á é í ó ú ý ǝ́). Stress is indicated in Cyrillic in the same fashion, except with the letter ё, which is always stressed.

Pronunciation

Capsule summary of Russian pronunciation

The transcription used in this article is morphophonemic rather than strictly phonemic, i.e. it writes the underlying phonemes rather than the phonemes actually heard when pronounced. The difference occurs particularly in the representation of unstressed vowels, where multiple underlying phonemes merge. For example, underlying e and i merge into the same sound when unstressed, but the difference is revealed in related forms based on the same root: e.g. z'eml'á [zʲɪmˈlʲæ] "land" has accusative z'éml'u [ˈzʲemlʲʉ], but z'imá [zʲɪˈma] "winter" has accusative z'ímu [ˈzʲimu]. When the transcription (which is derived from the spelling) disagrees with the actual morphophonemic pronunciation, the latter is indicated specially, e.g. čto /što/; š'it' /šyt'/; ž'óltyj /žóltyj/; ž'ená /žená/ [ʐɨˈna]; sólnc'e /sónce/ [ˈsont͡sǝ]. This occurs mostly with the letters š, ž, c, which are normally written palatal but pronounced non-palatal; but it is also due to occasional assimilations. Note that the rules for unstressed vowels still need to be applied (see below).

• á, é, í etc. indicates stress.
• š [ʂ], ž [ʐ] and c [t͡s] are never palatal, while č [t͡ɕ] and šš [ɕɕ] are always palatal, regardless of spelling.
• y [ɨ]: allophone of i [i] after non-palatal consonants, but written differently by convention. Written i sounds as y after š, ž, c, regardless of whether indicated as palatal in the spelling: ž'it [ʐɨtʲ] "to live".
• Vowel mergers in unstressed syllables are extensive, but not written.
  • After palatal, vowels a, o, e, i all merge as [ɪ]: t'až'ólyj [tʲɪˈʐolɨj] "heavy", v'el'ík'ij [vʲɪˈlʲikʲɪj] "big".
  • After non-palatal, vowels a and o merge as [ɐ] directly before the stress and absolutely word-initially, [ǝ] elsewhere: molokó [mǝlɐˈko] "milk", sobáka [sɐˈbakǝ] "dog", č'elov'ék [t͡ɕɪlɐˈvʲek] "man (human)".
  • After non-palatal, vowels e and i/y merge as [ɨ]: ž'ená [ʐɨˈna].
  • Exception: Absolutely word-finally after a palatal, e, i merge as [ɪ] but a, o merge as [ǝ]: s'ém'a [ˈsʲemʲə] "seed".
• Obstruents are devoiced word-finally, and agree in voicing in a cluster before another obstruent: muž [muʂ] "husband", vs'o [fsʲɵ] "everything", vokzál [vɐɡˈzal] "railway station". But v does not trigger voicing of preceding obstruent, nor is it devoiced.
• The reflexive suffix -s'a and reflexive infinitive -t'-s'a are pronounced without palatalization, i.e. as if written -sa and -t-sa.

Capsule summary of Bulgarian pronunciation

• á, é, í etc. indicates stress.
• Stressed ǝ is actually [ɤ]; unstressed a and ǝ tend to merge as [ɐ].
• Obstruent voicing/devoicing as in Russian.

Capsule summary of Czech pronunciation

• á, é, í etc. indicates vowel length.
• ů [uː] < *ó. ou [oʊ̯] < *ú.
• h [ɦ], ch [x].
• č [tʃ], š [ʃ], ž [ʒ], ř [r̝] (a palatal fricative trill, sounding a bit like [rʑ]).
• ď [ɟ], ť [c], ň [ɲ]. Also indicated by d, t, n before i, í or ě.
• y = i but indicates normal rather than palatal pronunciation after d t n.
• ě = short e but signals palatal nature of previous consonant: dě, tě, ně = ďe, ťe, ňe; vě, fě, bě, pě = vje, fje, bje, pje; mě = mňe.
• Obstruent voicing/devoicing as in Russian. ř after obstruent is itself devoiced rather than trigger voicing: přímý [pr̝̊iːmiː] "straight".

Capsule summary of Polish pronunciation

• Retroflex consonants: sz [ʂ], cz [t͡ʂ], ż [ʐ], rz [ʐ] < *ř (as in Czech), dż [d͡ʐ].
• Alveolopalatal consonants: ś or si [ɕ], ć or ci [t͡ɕ], ź or zi [ʑ], dź or dzi [d͡ʑ], ń or ni [ɲ].
• All consonants are palatalized before i. Note that alveolar s, z, n become alveolopalatal when palatalized, absorbing the i before another vowel: chodzić [ˈxɔd͡ʑit͡ɕ] "to walk", siedzieć [ˈɕɛd͡ʑɛt͡ɕ] "to sit".
• h or ch [x], w [v], ł [w].
• y [ɨ], ó [u] < *oː, ę [ɛ̃], ą [ɔ̃].
• Obstruent voicing/devoicing as in Russian and Czech. However, w and rz do not voice a preceding voiceless obstruent, but instead are devoiced: kwiat [kfʲat] "flower", przyjść [pʂɨjɕt͡ɕ] "to come" < *prʲijtʲ (cf. Russian pr'ijt'í).

Capsule summary of Serbo-Croatian pronunciation

• Accents: á (long rising), à (short rising), â (long falling), ȁ (short falling), ā (length in unstressed syllable), ã (long rising in Chakavian dialect = Common Slavic neoacute).
• š [ʃ], č [tʃ], ž [ʒ], dž [dʒ], ć [tɕ], đ [dʑ], nj [ɲ], lj [ʎ].
• Russian-style obstruent voicing/devoicing does not occur.

Dialectal differentiation

After the three palatalizations of Proto-Slavic, dialectal variation became more apparent. Some dialects (such as Proto-East Slavic), applied the second regressive palatalization across an intervening *v.

• Russian: *gwojzda > *gwězda > zvězda > [zʲvʲɪˈzda] ('star')
• Polish: *gwojzda > *gwězda > gwiazda > [ˈɡvʲazda] ('star')

Also, the realization of the palatalizations' sibilants varied a little amongst dialects. Belić (1921) argues that the phonetic character of the palatalizations was uniform throughout Common Slavic and that West Slavic languages developed *š later on by analogy. In all dialects (except for Lechitic), [dz] was deaffricated to [z]:

• Ukrainian: *zvizda> z'vizda; and zyrka/z'irka> Cf. Pol.: gwiazda-> GV/ZV + I + ZD; Z'/Z + Y/I + R + K +A ( zIr > vision).

The final cutoff point for the Proto-Slavic period was the change of *ě to *a after palatal consonants and *j, which then created *ča/*ka contrasts. This, and the shortening and elision of weak yers (*ь/ĭ and *ъ/ŭ) (see Havlík's law) that created newly formed closed syllables ended the period of syllabic synharmony characteristic of Common Slavic.

For many Common Slavic dialects—including most of West Slavic, all but the northernmost portions of East Slavic, and some western parts of South Slavic— *g lenited from a voiced velar plosive to a voiced velar fricative ([ɡ] > [ɣ]). Because this change was not universal and because it did not occur in a number of East Slavic dialects (such as Belarusian and South Russian) until after the application of Havlík's law, Shevelov (1977) calls into question early projections of this change and postulates three independent instigations of lenition, dating the earliest to before 900 AD and the latest to the early thirteenth century.

Because the reflexes for the nasal vowels *ę and *ǫ differ so widely, it's very likely that their phonetic value in Late Proto-Slavic was not uniform.

See also

• Slavic languages
• History of the Slavic languages
• Proto-Slavic language
• Indo-European vocabulary
• Wiktionary:Appendix:Swadesh lists for Slavic languages
• Slavic studies

Bibliography

• Belić, Aleksandar (1921), "Најмлађа (Трећа) Промена Задњенепчаних Сугласника k, g и h у Прасловенском Језику", Јужнословенски Филолог, II: 18–39
• Bethin, Christina Yurkiw (1998), Slavic Prosody: Language Change and Phonological Theory, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-59148-1
• Channon, Robert (1972), On the Place of the Progressive Palatalization of Velars in the Relative Chronology of Slavic, The Hague: Mouton
• Lehr-Spławiński, Tadeusz (1957), "Z dziejów języka prasłowiańskiego (Urywek z większej całości)", Езиковедски Изследвания В Чест На Академик Стефан Младенов, Sofia
• Schenkar, Alexander M. (2002), "Proto-Slavonic", in Comrie, Bernard; Corbett, Greville. G. (eds.), The Slavonic Languages, London: Routledge, pp. 60–124, ISBN 0-415-28078-8 {{citation}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
• Shevelov, George Y. (1977), "On the Chronology of h and the New g in Ukrainian", Harvard Ukrainian Studies (PDF), vol. vol 1, Cambridge: Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute, pp. 137–52 {{citation}}: |volume= has extra text (help)