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Urban ecotourism

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The James Madison Park shelter rooftop garden, located in Madison, Wisconsin. A project of neighborhood volunteers.

Urban ecotourism is a relatively new form of ecotourism that takes place in urban settings. The concept first appeared in 1996 when the Blackstone Corporation defined it as “[...] travel and exploration within and around an urban area that offers visitors enjoyment and appreciation of the city's natural areas and cultural resources, [...] promotes the city's long-term ecological health [...] promotes sustainable local economic and community development and vitality; [...] is accessible and equitable to all”.[1] Urban ecotourism shares the same goals for sustainability and community development as traditional ecotourism, but applies them to large cities, industrial wastelands, and post-productivist agriculture sites, as opposed to more nature-based venues for traditional ecotourism. Destinations in these locations may take the form of linear parks, farm-to-table restaurants, rewilding parks, biking and hiking trails, sustainable hotels, and rooftop gardens.

Benefits of Urban Ecotourism

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Environmental

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Urban Ecotourism's basic concept of rehabilitation and naturalization of deteriorated land implies that environmental quality is improved at destination sites. The type and extent of change may depend on the context surrounding implementation. In nearly all observed applications of urban ecotourism, environmental benefits such as improved air quality, increased public education, and increased aesthetic beauty occur.[2] These effects have been observed in a variety of venues, including industrial cities like Toronto [1] and nature parks like Amager Nature park in Denmark.[3] In Toronto environmental impacts are reduced since the infrastructure required for a high volume of visitors is pre-existing, a more general audience can visit since cities are more easily accessible—invoking greater environmental education, and the heightened popularity of ecotourism can incentivize further sustainable development.[1] Similarly, at Amager Nature Park benefits can be recognized as “the deliberate establishment of suitable habitats for [former] native species embedded in somewhat wilder eco-subsystems in different kinds of wastelands.” [3] This sort of attraction can serve as a source of income for future conservation efforts as well as draw attention to environmental issues associated with development.[3] It is important to note that while environmental costs exist, they are fewer relative to other conventional forms of tourism.[4]

Economic and Social

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The viability of ecotourism—as a conservation and development tool—is predicated on  its potential to provide economic benefits.[5] Contrasting urban ecotourism with traditional ecotourism, urban applications may have better financial viability due to the opportunity for economies of scale along with a reduced likelihood of negative social impact.[4] A case study of Drake Bay in Costa Rica found that where tourism occupies a major position in the local economy benefits are widespread, but equally is the case for adverse impacts. The negative effects reported in Drake Bay included increased solid waste generation, cultural loss, familial disintegration, increased access to drugs and alcohol, and lack of diversity in economic dependency.[5] Though these consequences occurred due to scale in the small village of Drake Bay, they may be less likely to arise in metropolitan areas like Toronto since most cities in the developed world have efficient waste-management and enduring cultures that would not be largely altered by the industry of ecotourism.[1] As the urban ecotourism industry grows in a given area, the local economy and culture may be better insulated from adverse effects and should accordingly be able to significantly increase economic and human development.[5]

Criticism

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Environmental-Gentrification

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The High Line Park at 30th St. in Manhattan.

One side-effect of urban ecotourism is eco-gentrification in places with increased green-space amenities. Environmental gentrification is a process in which the improved quality of a local environment increases property values and attracts higher-income people while pushing out lower-income residents.[6] The High Line is a noted example of eco-gentrification. The High Line is located in the historically low-income neighborhood of Chelsea in New York City and was previously an abandoned railway before it became an elevated green-space walkway.[7] Studies have been conducted as to whether the introduction of the High Line raised property values and to whom this may have benefited most. Sales prices of properties within 800 meters of the High Line were analyzed, and it was found that properties located the closest–within 80 meters–increased in value by about 35%.[8] This increase in property values points toward gentrification.[9] Noting that many lower-income residents in the area are renters and wealthier residents are property owners, the increase in property values and subsequent 68% increase in median rent between 2009–2018 time period [8] indicates that it may be more difficult for renters to remain in the area.[9] In addition, the observance that major corporations, including Facebook, Google, and Salesforce, have since opened offices in Chelsea further signifies gentrification.[8] This phenomenon is not unique to the High Line, but rather a characteristic of urban ecotourism spots as a whole under certain conditions. [9] Though this does not confirm that all urban ecotourism causes eco-gentrification, it shows that there may be negative consequences for lower-income local people.

Destinations

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The High Line

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The High Line is a 1.45 mile long elevated linear park built on a former freight railway in the neighborhood of Chelsea in New York City. As of 2019, the park received about 8 million annual visitors,[10] making it one of the most popular tourist attractions in the city and a global inspiration for similar transformations.[11] In 1999 after decades of disuse, the structure was marked for demolition but community members took inspiration in the thriving wild plants on the structure and sought to preserve and rehabilitate the public space.[11] Now, the High Line hosts more than 500 species of plants and is home to a diverse lineup of public programs, community and teen engagement, performances, and artwork, which is free and open to all.[11]

Amager Nature Park

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Amager Nature Park is an expansive wilderness park located within biking distance of the city of Copenhagen, Denmark. The area mainly consists of reclaimed land that was once used as a military training facility and landfill.[3] The organization that manages the park claims that their goal is to make experiences in nature more accessible and attractive to people in the city.[12] The park is one of the largest so close to a major city, amounting to about 3,000 acres—which is nearly ten times larger than Central Park in New York City—and encompasses a biodiverse array of landscapes and wildlife, including savannah, dense woods, salt-marshes, lakes, and canals which are home to numerous birds, deer, snakes, and frogs.[12] Popular activities include hiking, horseback riding, camping, kite and wind-surfing, and bird watching.[12]

Eco-Hotels

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Main article: Eco hotel
The Mandarin Oriental Hotel in Las Vegas. LEED certified Gold.

As the sustainable travel industry continues to grow, so has the accompanying market for environmentally conscious lodging.[13] Many hotels have gained LEED certification, which is the most widely used metric for rating the sustainability of buildings in the world.[14] In addition, many green hotel programs, labels, and standards, such as the Audubon International Green Lodging Program, Green Hotels Association, and Green Seal, have been created to better market and regulate hotels' efforts.[15] The types of operations adopted by eco-hotels include comprehensive recycling programs, composting kitchen waste, towel and sheet-saver programs, energy saving lights, less hazardous cleaning products, farm-to-table organic cuisine, and guest education.[16]

Ritz Carlton

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As part of an environmental commitment, the Ritz Carlton in downtown Charlotte, North Carolina doubled the size of their rooftop garden and made all produce available to resident chefs and guests through the hotel restaurant and farmer's market.[17] The garden enhancement project impacted all food and drink menus at the hotel by providing fresher ingredients with a smaller ecological footprint. In addition, the hotel provides eco-tours of the property's green practices and urban gardens to guests who are interested.[17]

H2Hotel

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The H2Hotel in Healdsburg, California is LEED NC 2.2 gold certified and incorporates a number of sustainable elements in its construction and guest accommodations.[18] The site was formerly a gas station that was remediated and restored for the hotel.[18] The architecture and features include a living roof covering 60% of the building, a rain water collection and filtration system, dual-flush toilets and low-flow faucets, and light colored pavement as well as a cool-roof system to reduce the urban heat island effect.[18] The guest services also promote sustainable living through providing locally-sourced seasonal ingredients on the menus, reusable water carafes in each room, and refillable bath amenities.[18]

The Future of Urban Ecotourism

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In a time when urbanization has generated increased resource use issues and pollution–and conserving our resources has become critical to preventing irreversible climate change, urban ecotourism has become an alternative growth and development option that an increasing number of global cities and municipalities are adopting.[1] Urban ecotourism remains under-researched and there are few case studies of real-life implementations.[3] However, since ecotourism is the fastest-growing sector of the travel industry,[2] urban ecotourism is expected to grow as well.[4] This should lead to a stronger understanding of the intentional and carryover effects of this emerging industry.

References

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  1. ^ a b c d e Gibson, Anna; Dodds, Rachel; Joppe, Marion; Jamieson, Brian (2003). "Ecotourism in the city? Toronto's Green Tourism Association". International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management. 15 (6): 324–327. doi:10.1108/09596110310488168. ISSN 0959-6119.
  2. ^ a b Che, Deborah (2006). "Developing ecotourism in First World, resource-dependent areas". Geoforum. 37 (2): 212–226. doi:10.1016/j.geoforum.2005.02.010. ISSN 0016-7185.
  3. ^ a b c d e Kaae, Berit C.; Holm, Jesper; Caspersen, Ole Hjorth; Gulsrud, Natalie Marie (2019-04-26). "Nature Park Amager – examining the transition from urban wasteland to a rewilded ecotourism destination". Journal of Ecotourism. 18 (4): 348–367. doi:10.1080/14724049.2019.1601729. ISSN 1472-4049. S2CID 159370473.
  4. ^ a b c Higham, James; Lück, Michael (2002). "Urban Ecotourism: A Contradiction in Terms?". Journal of Ecotourism. 1 (1): 36–51. doi:10.1080/14724040208668111. ISSN 1472-4049. S2CID 53682715.
  5. ^ a b c Stem, Caroline J.; Lassoie, James P.; Lee, David R.; Deshler, David J. (2003). "How 'Eco' is Ecotourism? A Comparative Case Study of Ecotourism in Costa Rica". Journal of Sustainable Tourism. 11 (4): 322–347. doi:10.1080/09669580308667210. ISSN 0966-9582. S2CID 153629185.
  6. ^ "Environmental Gentrification". Critical Sustainabilities. 2013-09-11. Retrieved 2020-10-28.
  7. ^ "History | The High Line". The High Line. Retrieved 2020-10-28.
  8. ^ a b c Jo Black, Katie; Richards, Mallory (2020). "Eco-gentrification and who benefits from urban green amenities: NYC's high Line". Landscape and Urban Planning. 204: 103900. doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2020.103900. ISSN 0169-2046.
  9. ^ a b c Maantay, Juliana A.; Maroko, Andrew R. (2018). "Brownfields to Greenfields: Environmental Justice Versus Environmental Gentrification". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 15 (10): 2233. doi:10.3390/ijerph15102233. ISSN 1661-7827. PMC 6210586. PMID 30321998.
  10. ^ "NYC's High Line Park Marks 10 Years of Transformation". NBC New York. Retrieved 2020-10-31.
  11. ^ a b c "History | The High Line". The High Line. Retrieved 2020-10-31.
  12. ^ a b c "Amager Nature Park". Koben Havner Gron. Retrieved October 31, 2020.
  13. ^ Suri, Charu (2019-04-17). "Hotels and Resorts Ramp Up Sustainability Efforts (Published 2019)". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2020-10-28.
  14. ^ "What is LEED? | U.S. Green Building Council". www.usgbc.org. Retrieved 2020-10-28.
  15. ^ US EPA, OCSPP (2015-06-23). "Green Hotels - Resources, Ecolabels and Standards". US EPA. Retrieved 2020-10-28.
  16. ^ Enz, Cathy A.; Siguaw, Judy A. (1999-10-01). "Best Hotel Environmental Practices". Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly. 40 (5): 72–77. doi:10.1177/001088049904000511. hdl:1813/71927. ISSN 0010-8804. S2CID 220636859.
  17. ^ a b "Luxury Hotels & Resorts". The Ritz-Carlton. Retrieved 2020-10-28.
  18. ^ a b c d "h2hotel". h2hotel. Retrieved 2020-10-31.
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