User:TheAustinMan/sandbox/NWS

Logo of the National Weather Service

The history of the National Weather Service began with its inception as a military weather service under the direction of then-U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant in 1870 under the responsibility of the Signal Corps within the Department of War. In 1890, the agency transitioned into a civilian agency under the Department of Agriculture as the United States Weather Bureau, and gained its current moniker in 1970 following its placement in the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) within the Department of Commerce.

The National Weather Service and its heritage were preceded by various attempts at establishing regional weather observation networks in the United States, particularly beginning in the early 19th century. James Tilton and Joseph Lovell of the United States Army and Joseph Henry of the Smithsonian Institution were among the first to advocate for and develop meteorological observation networks. Meteorologists Cleveland Abbe and Increase A. Lapham showed promise in their ability to use such networks to create forecasts and warnings on inclement weather. Growing support for a national program culminated in the passage of a joint resolution signed by President Ulysses S. Grant in 1870 to establish a national systematic weather observation and warning system under the Department of War.

The first two decades of the new weather service were managed by the Signal Corps. Chief Signal Officer Albert J. Myer served as its first head and oversaw the rapid expansion of the program. As the service grew, the number of meteorological products tailored for both general and industry interests quickly rose, as did the number of weather stations run by the Signal Corps. By 1890, there were 180 active weather stations across the United States, transmitting weather data via telegraph to the Signal Corps's Washington, D.C. headquarters for dissemination to cities and an estimated third of all American households.

Although founded as a military enterprise, civilian interest in weather forecasting outgrew military necessities. With scientific advancement of meteorology emerging as a higher priority, the service was transferred to the Department of Agriculture in 1891. The weather service began this new era christened as the United States Weather Bureau, an independent civilian government agency divorced in its function from the military.

Background

Increase Lapham (top) and Cleveland Abbe (bottom), considered fathers of the National Weather Service

Early research into meteorology in the United States was mostly spearheaded by those involved in agriculture, medicine, or the general sciences. The traceable movement of storms across the country was pioneered by Benjamin Franklin, who during Colonial America observed that storms affecting the East Coast typically moved on a southwest-to-northeast track. Additionally, professor Elias Loomis at Western Reserve College asserted in 1863 that weather telegrams from the Mississippi Valley could be used to predict storms in New York City with 24-hour leadtimes. Collection of weather data was also commonplace early in America's history. Reverand John Campanius of Swedes Fort in Delaware kept the colonies' first systematic weather record between 1644 and 1645. Thomas Jefferson also maintained daily weather observations, and also assimilated regional weather data from as far as Quebec and the Mississippi River.

A more standardized network of weather observations was ordained by Surgeon General of the United States Army James Tilton during the War of 1812, directing hospital surgeons to maintain weather observations and climatological records. The directed was delayed for several years until the first meteorological army camps were established by Surgeon General Joseph Lovell in 1818. This represented the first federally-funded meteorological organization in the nation's history, though the completeness of data from army camps was often disparate between camps. Several states sported their own observation networks, including New York under the behest of New York University. However, the state program were often short-lived or failed to materialize. Maintenance of observations networks was greatly aided by the introduction of the telegraph into meteorology in the 1840s. The newly-formed Smithsonian Institution quickly prioritized meteorological data in its operations under the direction of Joseph Henry. The first meteorological observations transmitted via telegraph were made in 1849 and received by Henry from a voluntary network of 150 weather stations. The project gradually grew to as much as 500 stations in 1860 at the start of the American Civil War with coverage across 31 states, Canada, and Paraguay. Daily weather reports from the stations were also transmitted to the Washington Evening Star. Data was first consolidated into monthly data tables beginning in 1852. Around the same time, synoptic weather charts and isothermal charts began to be plotted. The outbreak of the Civil War delayed the quest for dedicated federally-funded meteorology program, but renewed interest resumed following the war's end.

Although Henry unsuccessfully attempted to secure funding for such a program, meteorologist Cleveland Abbe demonstrated to the Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce the efficacy of an agency that both coordinated observations and issued warnings. Abbe's program attracted trained observers from the earlier Smithsonian network, and his regional warning system began on September 1, 1869 with the aid of Western Union's telegram service. Concurrently, Increase A. Lapham worked on a similar warning system for the Wisconsin and Great Lakes region. While his proposal to the Chicago Academy of Sciences was met with skepticism by The Chicago Tribune, congressman Halbert E. Paine of Wisconsin was supportive of the program and wanted to see it expand to a national scope. On December 16, 1869, Paine introduced a bill to the U.S. Congress, authorizing the Secretary of War to compel meteorological observations from all interior military stations and to provide warnings and information on marine storms in both the Great Lakes and Eastern Seaboard. Though Abbe and Henry had hoped that the program would be run by meteorologists, Paine and Lapham argued that military operation of the program would be both cheaper and highly disciplined. A largely identical joint resolution was introduced and passed by the U.S. House of Representatives on February 2, 1870, with the United States Senate concurring three days later. President Ulysses S. Grant signed the resolution into law on February 9, 1870, establishing a national weather service by law.

Be it resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the Secretary of War be, and he hereby is, authorized and required to provide for taking meteorological observations at the military stations in the interior of the continent, and at other points in the States and Territories of the United States, and for giving notice on the northern lakes and on the sea-coast by magnetic telegraph and marine signals, of the approach and force of storms.

— 41st United States Congress, Joint Resolution to authorize the Secretary of War to provide for taking meteorological Observations at the military Stations and other Points in the Interior of the Continent, and for giving Notice on the northern Lakes and Seaboard of the Approach and Force of Storms., 16 Stat. 369

Under the Signal Corps: 1870–1890

A Signal Corps station in Cape Mendocino in 1888

Myer's weather service and early growth

Following Grant's signing of the joint resolution establishing a national weather service, Secretary of War William W. Belknap assigned responsibility of such a service to the Signal Corps. Colonel Albert J. Myer, chief of the Signal Corps, had earlier demonstrated the feasibility of weather forecasting by examining a winter storm that had impacted Washington, D.C. after originating from the United States Midwest; his position as head of the Signal Corps also made him head of the new meteorological program. Within the Signal Corps, the Division of Telegrams and Reports for the Benefit of Commerce was tasked with maintaining the weather service. While meteorological observations and administration was largely a military endeavor, the more technical work involving research and forecasting was largely conducted by civilians led by Cleveland Abbe. Initially, 24 field stations made up the observation network; these stations sent telegrams three times a day to the Signal Corp's headquarters at 1719/1721 G Street in Washington, D.C. At first, the telegrams communicated only the state of the weather, but later expanded to include measurables like temperature, humidity, and barometric pressure. Such observations made their way onto the front pages of some metropolitan newspapers including the Washington Evening Star beginning on November 1, 1870. Weather reports adapted for the press were delivered at 1:00 a.m., 11:30 a.m., and 7:30 p.m. local time daily. These times would later be standardized in 1879 to be exactly eight hours apart.

At its inception, the chief priority of the weather service was to issue storm warnings for marine areas. The first warning was issued by Increase A. Lapham, charged with responsibility for the Great Lakes region, on November 8, 1870. Due to frequent absences caused by personal work and illness, Lapham would be released from the Signal Corps just two years after its formation. Abbe, serving as special assistant to Myer, issued daily bulletins titled "Weather Synopsis and Probabilities" that provided marine forecasts in the Great Lakes, Gulf, and Atlantic coasts for the next 24 hours beginning in 1871. Due to the product's popularity, issuance of the bulletin was increased to three times a day. Official weather forecasts were originally called "probabilities"; the parlance later changed to "indications" in December 1876 and later to "forecasts" in June 1889. A target of 80% accuracy in forecasting proved difficult to attain, and Abbe asserted that they would likely never have an average of more than 90% of forecasts verifying. In 1887, verification of forecasts for temperature changes and precipitation averaged 74%.

The U.S. Congress extended the scope of the Signal Corps's weather services nationally for both land and sea on June 10, 1872. Forecasts from the service were limited to broad national overviews before a select few stations, including one in New York City, were allowed to issue more locally tailored products in 1881. By 1872, the Signal Corps had developed the means to issue more specific 24-hour forecasts for weather conditions. Raw reports were originally transmitted in telegraphic ciphertext for efficiency, but could then be interpreted and posted at railway stations, cities, and on railway cars. Regional Signal Corps offices disseminated the national forecasts to local post offices, which began to post forecasts on their buildings in 1873. The following year, the 24-hour predictions became more detailed, specifying forecast temperatures, pressures, and winds. The weather service also developed a system of colored flags and flown symbols that would be hoisted at railroads and internal operations to signal certain weather conditions.

The Signal Service's meteorological responsibilities continued to grow, and eventually overshadowed the original duties of the corps prior to 1870. In concert with its operational procedures, the Signal Corps also delivered detailed reports to the Department of War summarizing their meteorological activities. Weather maps, with new symbols denoting various hydrometeors, later began to be distributed via telegram alongside the raw weather observations. The service also began to publish a daily International Weather Map, starting with the first edition on July 1, 1878. A year later, these maps became available to the press and included a wealth of information including isotherms, isobars, storm centers, and weather conditions, though coverage west of Denver, Colorado was lacking. In 1873, Abbe established the Monthly Weather Review, a meteorological scientific journal, and served as its chief editor. A dedicated station for predicting tornadic activity was proposed by John Park Finley in Kansas City, Missouri, to be active during the months of May, June, and July. Although tornado forecasting was in its infancy, over the next few years Finley would identify conditions conducive to tornado formation with the aid of tornado spotters across the Central United States. A system of tropical cyclone observations emerged in 1878, though a more formalized warning mechanism would only develop in the late 1890s. Although several observation stations were established in the West Indies in the 1870s, unreliable telegram cables, difficulty in coordinating with foreign observers, excessive cost, and questionable legality regarding the operation of stations on foreign soil hamstrung the program, making it a largely intermittent venture. Similar efforts focusing on coastal waterways, oceanic observations, and river flooding sported some success from the beginnings in the 1870s.

National forecasts were originally limited by the lack of observations and sparse telegraph connectivity to locations west of the Mississippi River. However, the service made a concerted effort to increase the number of weather stations across the United States in the early 1870s, proposing as many as 113 new stations. Some of these materialized, including the addition of a station in San Francisco, California early in 1871. That same year, the Meteorological Service of Canada also began to exchange meteorological data, resulting in the increased predictability of cold waves in the United States. The service also sought meteorological observations from Europe, primarily for climatology research and case studies of former storms. By 1890, there were 180 weather stations operated by the Signal Corps. These stations were classified as first-, second-, and third-order; first- and second-order stations were both fully equipped and staffed with full-time personnel, while third-class stations transmitted abridged meteorological information limited to maximum and minimum temperatures and precipitation totals. Cold-wave warnings were of particular interest to the weather service as cold waves were both rapid and could affect large areas of the county. The flag symbolizing such a warning—white with a black square at center—was introduced in 1878, becoming just the second warning flag used by the agency following their high wind warning.

The post-Myer Signal Corps

William Babcock Hazen, the second chief of the Signal Corps

Myer died on August 24, 1880, after leading the Signal Corps's weather service for a decade. His role as Chief Signal Officer was succeeded by William Babcock Hazen that year, who continued to oversee growth in the meteorological program. Upon his chairmanship of the service in 1880, an estimated one-third of households in the United States received daily weather information from the Signal Corps. Reported observations from signal stations had also become more detailed and streamlined across all stations in the American interior. The meteorological enterprise also began making headway into specific industries as warning responsibilities grew; special products were issued during the winter months for mariners navigating with canals starting in 1881, and around the same time, a daily weather bulletin for railroads was established. Finley's tornado research efforts materialized as severe storm alerts beginning in 1884. Such alerts were intended to provide local notice of severe weather 16 hours in advance with a target accuracy of 40 percent, though the word "tornado" was banned from being used in public alerts. Adolphus Greely took responsibility of the weather service following Hazen's death in 1887. Greely's assumption of the role coincided with a prolonged effort to move the Signal Corps headquarters to a more suitable location. Under the direction of H.R. 4359, passed on February 25, 1888, a vacant residence on M Street was acquired by the Signal Corps at a total cost of $188,000, including additional costs for the construction of storehouses and other structures to help facilitate the weather service's duties. Official observations from the Signal Corps for Washington D.C. location continued to be based at the old G Street location before officially moving to the new M Street complex on March 22, 1889.

The Signal Corps weather service had grown considerably, though its civilian applications were becoming more apparent than its original military-oriented mission. Conditions within and surrounding the agency were ripe for a transfer of the service to civilian hands. Within the agency's ranks, infighting and lack of financial accountability caused internal discord, particularly after Myer's death in 1880. Awareness of the weather service's flaws increased as the agency's forecasts became more prominent, making improvements more urgent. Several cost-cutting resolutions were introduced to the United States Congress, with solutions ranging from moving the service to the Department of the Treasury to combining it with the United States Life-Saving Service. These efforts did not come to fruition per se, but established the sentiment that the service's most pressing issue was its financial efficiency, resulting in the curtailing of the agency's budget in 1876. These qualms were verified in the public eye in 1881 when the disbursing officer of the Signal Service, Captain Henry W. Howgate, was arrested and later convicted of at least $90,000 at the end of a prolonged scandal. The affair was a heavy blow to the weather service's reputation, with critics accusing additional employees of having aided Howgate and calling for a thorough audit of the Signal Corps. Although Hazen asserted his role in the eventual indictment, his critics were able to push for a swift reduction of service appropriations beginning in 1883. The tighter budget led to the closure of several weather stations, including those located in some major cities. Representative Frank Eckels Beltzhoover was among the more prominent voices of Hazen's opposition, charging Hazen of having sought illicit favors and silencing those investigating him. Other accusations levied in Congress included the chief's refusal to accept African Americans into the service.

Within the Signal Corps, the question of autonomy from the remainder of the United States Army had been a subject of discussion since the weather service's establishment. While Myer took a more nuanced position, Chief Signal Officer Hazen articulated the Signal Corps' autonomy. Concurring with Hazen's position, Commanding General of the United States Army William Tecumseh Sherman suggested a detachment of the weather service and its $1 million budget from the army. To improve efficiency of the Signal Corps, a joint congressional committee chaired by Senator William B. Allison was convened in 1884. The committee heard testimony from both those approving and critical of the service. Although Hazen's tight control of the service and strict disciplinary policies received significant attention, so too did the question of the weather service's independence. While he agreed with the independence of the Signal Corps, Hazen staunchly disagreed with transitioning the weather service to a civilian agency. The commission concluded in June 1886 with a scathing critique of the weather service's operation in its current form. The final report blamed service's internal strife on its dual civilian and military nature, and surmised that the best course of action was to transfer the weather service to an entirely civilian operation. Despite the strong sentiment, the legislative results were limited only to cost-saving measures, and the weather service remained within the military.

Criticism of the Signal Corps continued under Greely's tenure as Chief Signal Officer, with complaints of the accuracy and readability of its forecasts. Greely responded by asserting that the only legal responsibility of the weather service was to take observations and issue storm warnings, thus making forecasts a volunteer effort. However, in contrast with Hazen's stalwart defense of the Signal Corps' operation, Greely was more publicly cognizant of the service's faults, and later accepted that military operation had to be eliminated. Greely began to replace enlisted personnel in the service with civilians in 1888, resulting in a reduction of 58 percent of enlisted men. As time passed, the War Department did not appear to fully back the meteorological program while Secretary of Agriculture Jeremiah McLain Rusk petitioned for responsibility of the service under his department. With Chief Signal Officer Greely not strongly opposed to the transfer, Senator William B. Bate of Tennessee introduced a bill in December 1889 that would transfer responsibility of the weather service to the Department of Agriculture, on the heels of several other measures introduced in Congress that fell short of passage. The bill was signed into law by President Benjamin Harrison on October 1, 1890, completing the transfer. The new civilian weather service was to be called the Weather Bureau.

National Weather Service: 1970–present

At the time of its transition into the NOAA, the NWS occupied 400 facilities with 5,000 full-time employees. The agency's infrastructure was valued at $50 million. With the NWS maintaining the same three-echelon hierarchy from the latter years of the Weather Bureau, the NMC continued to serve as the organization's backbone, with the NSSFC, NHC, and RCTM operating at the same tier on more specific meteorological applications. There were 41 weather forecast offices, including one in San Juan, Puerto Rico.

In 1973, the NWS began replacing its WSR-57 radar network with WSR-74 radars. Just three years after their implementation, evaluation by the Joint Doppler Operational Project would eventually lead to the development of the WSR-88D radar system. By the late 1970s, the NWS had developed a sufficiently successful satellite observation network to render its ship observations obsolete; in 1977, the final US weather observation ship was decommissioned, replaced instead by a cheaper observation network made up of buoys.

List of heads of the National Weather Service

Heads of the National Weather Service

Name	Years	Prior office	Notes
Chief Signal Officer of the United States Signal Corps
Albert J. Myer	1870 – 1880
William Babcock Hazen	1880 – 1887
Aldolphus Greely	1887 – 1891
Chief of the United States Weather Bureau
Mark W. Harrington	1891 – 1895
Willis Luther Moore	1895 – 1913
Charles F. Marvin	1913 – 1934
Willis L. Gregg	1934 – 1938
Francis W. Reichelderfer	1938 – 1963
Robert M. White	1963 – 1965
George Cressman	1965 – 1979
Director of the National Weather Service
Richard E. Hallgren	1979 – 1988
Elbert W. Friday, Jr.	1988 – 1997
Robert S. Winokur†	1997
John J. Kelly, Jr.	1998 – 2004
David L. Johnson	2004 – 2007
John L. Hayes	2007 – 2012	Director of the World Meteorological Organization's World Weather Watch Programme Department (2006–2007)
Laura Furgione†	2012 – 2013	Deputy Director of the National Weather Service (2010–2012)
Louis W. Uccellini	2013 –	Director of the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (1999–2013)

See also

• Weather forecasting
• Numerical weather prediction
• Tropical cyclone forecasting

References

Sources

• Weber, Gustavus A. (1922). The Weather Bureau: Its History, Activities, and Organization. New York, New York: D. Appleton and Company. LCCN 22019464. Retrieved August 26, 2018.
• Whitnah, Donald Robert (July 1961). A History of the United States Weather Bureau. Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press.

Citations