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History of Chongqing

Chongqing is one of the four direct-administered municipalities of the People's Republic of China, one of the nine national central cities, the economic center of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River, and a central city in the Chengdu-Chongqing economic circle in Sichuan. Chongqing was named during the Southern Song Dynasty, and after being elevated to Chongqing Prefecture, it gradually developed into one of the political and economic centers of Sichuan. In modern times, due to its advantageous geographical location, it was among the first to come into contact with capitalism, which contributed to its development as one of the national central cities.

Prehistoric Era

Jawbones and teeth of primitive humans were discovered in Wushan County, Chongqing. This discovery, named Wushan Man, indicates that humanoids existed in the Chongqing area more than 2 million years ago (there is still debate on whether Wushan Man is human or ape) . By the Neolithic era, the Daxi Culture site (4400 BC–3300 BC) located in today's Wushan County in Chongqing belonged to the middle reaches of the Yangtze River culture. The Shaopengzui Culture site and culture found in today's Zhongxian County represent the indigenous culture of Chongqing in the late Neolithic period, contemporary with Shandong's Longshan Culture and the Liangzhu Culture in the Yangtze River Delta. The Xiongjiaba Site discovered in Banan District, Chongqing, is the largest Neolithic site found in the main city area. Based on its cultural attributes, the Xiongjiaba site belongs to the Shaopengzui Culture, confirming that the main city area of Chongqing in the late Neolithic period belonged to the eastern Sichuan Neolithic cultural system.

Pre-Qin Period

Main article: Ba State

According to the "Huayang Guozhi," the Ba people "included the Pu, Cong, Ju, Gong, Nu, Rang, Yi, and Dan barbarians." During the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, the Ba State, with the surname Ji, migrated into present-day Chongqing and established its capital in Jiangzhou (now Yuzhong District, Chongqing) . Originating from the upper reaches of the Han River, its territory extended east to Yufu (now Fengjie County), west to Benzhao (now Yibin City), north to Hanzhong, and south to Qianfu, covering vast lands in present-day Chongqing, western Hubei, southern Shaanxi, and eastern Sichuan, comparable to the other seven states.

During the Shang Dynasty, the Ji clan's Ba State frequently engaged in wars with the Yin Dynasty. During the reign of King Wu Ding of Shang, multiple wars were fought against the Ba side, none of which were successful. In the final conflict, King Wu Ding personally led a campaign with the renowned female general Fu Hao and the famous general Zhizhen, mobilizing the entire nation to participate. They finally defeated the Ba State, but this conflict left a lasting enmity between the Ba State and the Yin Dynasty. At the end of the Shang Dynasty, when King Wu of Zhou campaigned against the last Shang king, the Ba State joined the allied forces, becoming one of the main forces in overthrowing the Shang. The "Huayang Guozhi" records: "When King Wu of Zhou campaigned against King Zhou of Shang, he relied on the Ba and Shu armies, as noted in the 'Shang Shu.' The Ba army was fierce and danced in battle, causing the Shang soldiers to turn their weapons against themselves. Hence the saying: 'When King Wu campaigned against Zhou, they sang and danced in front and behind.'" The phrase "relied on" clearly emphasizes the significant role the Ba army played in the war to overthrow the Shang .

Qin, Han, and Three Kingdoms Period

In 316 BC, the Qin State conquered the Ba State, bringing the Chongqing area under the control of various Central Plains dynasties. After the conquest, Qin established Ba Commandery in 314 BC, one of the thirty-six commanderies, with its seat in Jiangzhou (now Yuzhong District, Chongqing). In 206 BC, after Liu Bang of Han seized the Ba and Shu lands, he maintained the Qin system and set up Ba Commandery. During the Eastern Han, Fuling and Badong Commanderies were added. A new city, North Prefecture City, was built in today's Jiangbei area, where the prefect of Ba Commandery sometimes worked .

The Three Kingdoms period left many legacies in the Chongqing area, including White Emperor City and Zhang Fei Temple. Many stories from "Romance of the Three Kingdoms" took place in what is now Chongqing.

Jin, Southern, and Northern Dynasties

After Cao Wei conquered Shu Han, Sichuan was divided into Yizhou and Liangzhou, with Chongqing under Liangzhou's jurisdiction. Subsequently, Chongqing successively belonged to the Western Jin, Northern Qin, Southern Song, Southern Liang, and Northern Zhou. During this period, the chaos in the Central Plains caused frequent population movements, significantly influencing Sichuan, with Chongqing at the forefront.

Sui, Tang, and Song Periods

In the first year of the Kaihuang era of Emperor Wen of Sui (581 AD), Chuzhou was renamed to Yuzhou because the Yu River (the ancient name of the Jialing River) encircled the city. This is the origin of Chongqing's abbreviation, Yu.

During the Tang Dynasty, the name Yuzhou was retained, and it was governed under the Shannan West Circuit.

In the Song Dynasty, the main city of Chongqing was under the jurisdiction of Kuizhou Road. As agriculture developed during the Song Dynasty, the population of Chongqing rapidly expanded. Additionally, the area gradually developed into a major transportation hub connecting Sichuan with central China and the Jiangnan region, leading to a rapid growth in handicrafts. It was also during the Song Dynasty that the name "Chongqing" originated and has continued to be used to this day. In 1102 AD, Emperor Huizong of Song changed the name of Yuzhou to Gongzhou. In 1189 AD, Zhao Dun, the third son of Emperor Xiaozong of Song, who was titled Prince Gong and resided in Gongzhou, ascended the throne after Emperor Xiaozong abdicated in his favor. He became Emperor Guangzong of Song. According to imperial customs, any place where an emperor resided before his accession was to be elevated from a prefecture (zhou) to a superior prefecture (fu). Emperor Guangzong believed that being titled Prince Gong was a joyful event and ascending to the throne from this position was another joyful event, hence two layers of joy. Therefore, he ordered the name change from Gongzhou to Chongqing Fu. The name Chongqing has been in use for over 800 years.

■ Agricultural Development An important marker of agricultural economic development in the Chongqing area during the Song Dynasty was the extensive construction of terraced fields. This achievement, characteristic of the hilly eastern Sichuan region, showcased the local farmers' success in overcoming natural obstacles and utilizing land resources. People transformed hillside soils into terraced fields, layer by layer, building dykes at the edges for irrigation, allowing for rice cultivation. This adaptive transformation converted hillside soils into rice paddies. For example, in the Hezhou area, people converted hillside soils into terraced fields, planting rice seedlings after rains, which locally earned the name "Thunder Fields." Located along the Yangtze River, the Chongqing region experienced warm temperatures and early soil warming, allowing for the cultivation of early and medium-season rice in many places. In areas unsuitable for rice, crops such as wheat and barley were grown. The remote Nanpingjun area (now Qijiang, Wansheng, and Nanchuan) also saw rapid agricultural development due to the large influx of Han Chinese settlers. Various vegetables, including beans, onions, leeks, winter melons, eggplants, and amaranth, were widely available in the Yuzhou market. Additionally, Hezhou was an important production area for lychees. Agricultural development led to a rapid increase in population in the Chongqing area. During Emperor Taizong's reign (976–997 AD), there were only 60,000 households in the four military prefectures of Yuzhou, Hezhou, Changzhou, and Nanpingjun in western Chongqing. By 1080 AD, the number had risen to 112,000 households, and by 1102 AD, it reached 130,000 households, totaling 300,000 people. The entire area of modern Chongqing had 12 prefectures, states, and commanderies by 1102 AD, with a population of over 710,000, which surged to over 1.1 million by 1162 AD in the Southern Song period.

■ Progress in Handicrafts On the foundation of agricultural development, handicrafts also advanced compared to previous eras. In terms of textiles, areas contributing cloth to the imperial court included only Yuzhou during the Tang Dynasty, but expanded to include Changzhou (centered in Dazu) during the Song Dynasty. The regions producing silk fabrics increased from just Changzhou in the Tang Dynasty to Changzhou, Yuzhou, and Nanpingjun in the Song Dynasty. Tea production points in Sichuan during the Tang Dynasty numbered eight, with none in eastern Sichuan. By the Song Dynasty, the Chongqing area alone had tea-producing regions in Hezhou and Nanpingjun. Hezhou's "Southern Tea" became as famous as the renowned Mengding tea from Ya'an. Due to tea production, Nanpingjun became an important site for tea-horse trade between the Song Dynasty and southern ethnic minorities. The ceramics industry in the Chongqing area also stood out. The region produced a distinctive black-glazed pottery, with various surface decorations including hare's fur, tortoiseshell, oil spot, partridge feather, and the most precious "transmutation glaze" which exhibited vibrant colors like red, sky blue, and purple when observed under sunlight. The Song-era Tushan Kiln in today's Nanan District, stretching over ten li, was the most significant production area for this black-glazed pottery. Hezhou was also a shipbuilding center. During the Southern Song period, many horse-transport ships were built in Hezhou. In 1167 alone, the Sichuan pacification office allocated 75,000 guan to Hezhou to construct 200 horse-transport ships for transporting horses to Jingnan.

■ Commercial Trade With the development of agriculture and handicrafts, the variety of goods increased, and commercial exchange rapidly prospered. The area around Yuzhou City, along the Yangtze and Jialing rivers, bustled with commercial shipping. As the commodity economy developed, numerous rural market towns emerged, with their scale and proportion surpassing those in the economically advanced Chengdu Fu region. Chengdu Fu had 14 prefectures and 58 counties with 158 market towns, while the Chongqing region, with just the three prefectures of Yu, Chang, and He, and 11 counties in the west, had 106 market towns. The thriving commodity economy was also reflected in tax revenue. For example, Yuzhou collected over 39,000 guan annually, the highest in Kuizhou Road, while Hezhou collected over 37,000 guan, ranking third in Zizhou Road.

Transportation in the Chongqing area was crucial during the Song Dynasty. Goods transported from Sichuan to the capital city of Bianliang (modern Kaifeng, Henan) and Jiangnan mostly traveled by water, with Yuzhou serving as a transit station. Goods from central Sichuan were first transported out via the Jialing River and its tributaries, the Fu River and Qu River, with Hezhou being the initial gathering point before moving on to Yuzhou for consolidation and further transport out of Sichuan. Overland routes included one from Jingxiang into Sichuan to Chengdu, where travelers would disembark at Wanzhou (now Wanzhou District) and travel via Liangping, Dianjiang, and Linshui to Hezhou, then north to Suizhou (now Suining), Feiniu (in modern Zhongjiang County), and Ziyang, reaching Chengdu. This was a time-efficient and cost-effective route, with Hezhou serving as a transit station. Nanpingjun was the starting point for routes from Sichuan to Guizhou and an entry point for routes from Guizhou into Sichuan, making it a vital commercial route.

Not only agriculture and industry, but the culture and philosophy of the Chongqing area also peaked during the Song Dynasty. The only World Cultural Heritage site in the region, the Dazu Rock Carvings, was completed during this period. Furthermore, Fuling became a center for Neo-Confucian studies, forming the Fuling School, which significantly influenced later Chinese philosophers like Zhu Xi. The Beishanping area in modern Fuling District still preserves the Dianyi Garden from this era.

Resistance Against the Mongols

Main article: Battle of Diaoyu Castle

The economic prosperity of the Chongqing and Sichuan regions during the Song Dynasty laid a solid material foundation for resisting the Mongol invasions.

In the second year of the Duanping era of the Song Dynasty (1235 AD), the Mongol army entered Sichuan for the first time. The following year, they attacked Sichuan again, capturing Chengdu and causing widespread alarm throughout the province. Peng Dayi, then Vice Commissioner of Sichuan and Prefect of Chongqing, fortified Chongqing and sent his general to build a fortress at Diaoyu Castle in Hezhou. In the third year of the Chunyou era (1243 AD), the Song court appointed Yu Jie as Acting Minister of War, Pacification Commissioner of Sichuan, and Prefect of Chongqing. In January of the fourth year of Chunyou, Yu Jie was promoted to Grand Secretary of the Hua and Wen Cabinets, continuing his roles as Pacification Commissioner of Sichuan, General Administrator of Sichuan Finance, Transport Commissioner of Kui Road, and Prefect of Chongqing. As a result, Sichuan's main military, political, and financial institutions were all concentrated in Chongqing. From then until the fall of the Southern Song (1243-1279 AD), the Song court did not establish a Commissioner in Chengdu Fu.

Yu Jie built a city on Diaoyu Mountain, stockpiling grain and deploying troops to resist the Mongol forces advancing from the south, thus serving as a shield for Chongqing. He also constructed 20 fortresses in accordance with the terrain features of southern and eastern Sichuan, creating a comprehensive mountain city defense system that played a crucial role in supporting the Southern Song's remaining territories.

In 1258, the Mongol Great Khan Möngke, his brother Kublai Khan, and General Uryankhadai launched a three-pronged attack on the Southern Song. In 1259, Möngke Khan personally led an 800,000-strong army to invade and was mortally wounded by a heavy artillery strike from the defenders while attacking Diaoyu Castle in Hezhou. He died on the 27th day of the seventh lunar month under Chongqing's Jinyun Mountain near the Chongqing North Hot Springs.

After Möngke's death, Kublai Khan, who was on the front lines in Hubei, hurried back to Chongqing to mourn, along with Torgene who was attacking Changsha in Hunan, and Hulagu, who had captured Damascus and was fighting the Mamluk Sultanate in Egypt. This internal power struggle among the Mongol nobility led to prolonged infighting over the succession, with the Golden Horde and Ilkhanate soon going to war.

The victory at Diaoyu Castle against the Mongols had a significant impact on global affairs. It forced the Mongols to retreat from their third westward expansion just as they reached Syria, thereby halting their advance and preventing the possible total destruction of North African culture by the Mongol army.

Following this, until the fall of the Southern Song, the commander Wang Li accepted the Yuan Dynasty's conditions of not lowering flags, not surrendering weapons, and not altering county records. He led the residents of Hezhou to surrender with dignity, preserving Hezhou County to this day, and ending the 36-year history of resistance at Diaoyu Castle.

Ming and Qing Dynasties

During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the name "Chongqing Prefecture" persisted.

At the end of the Yuan Dynasty, the military commander of the peasant uprising, Ming Yuzhen, led troops into Sichuan, pacifying the Ba-Shu region. In 1362, he declared himself emperor, established the capital in Chongqing, adopted the imperial title "Daxia," and the era name "Tiantong," known in history as the Ming Xia period. Today, the tomb of Ming Yuzhen remains near Jiangbeizui in Jiangbei District.

In 1371, the Ming Xia regime was overthrown by the Ming Dynasty, which had already captured the Yuan capital, Dadu (present-day Beijing). During the Ming Dynasty, Chongqing Prefecture administered three prefectures and seventeen counties. After the Ming conquest of Chongqing, due to prolonged warfare, the city walls were damaged. Dai Ding, the commander defending the city, rebuilt Chongqing's walls. The new city featured seventeen gates, even more than those of Yingtian (today's Nanjing), which originally had thirteen gates. However, eight of these gates were merely ornamental, unable to open or close, hence dubbed "nine open, eight closed." Dai Ding's reconstruction set the foundation for Chongqing's cityscape over the next 600 years during the Ming and Qing dynasties.

In the Qing Dynasty, the Chuan East Circuit was established in Chongqing Prefecture, governing three prefectures (Chongqing, Kuizhou, and Suiding), two directly administered districts (Zhongzhou and Youyang), and one directly administered bureau (Shizhu), solidifying its role as the political and economic center of eastern Sichuan. In the early Qing period, the Governor-General of Sichuan briefly resided in Chongqing.

Opening of Chongqing

In the second year of the Guangxu reign (1876 AD), citing the Margary Affair, Britain coerced the Qing government into signing the Treaty of Yantai, which stipulated in Article III, Clause 1: "Furthermore, the Chongqing Prefecture of Sichuan may have a British resident to oversee British commercial affairs. Before the arrival of steamships at Chongqing, British merchants and civilians are not allowed to reside or establish warehouses there. After the arrival of steamships, further arrangements can be negotiated," laying the groundwork for the formal opening of Chongqing. In March 1890, China and Britain signed the "Additional Articles to the Treaty of Yantai," which formally included a provision allowing "Chongqing to function as a treaty port, with no differences from other treaty ports. British merchants can transport goods between Yichang and Chongqing, either by hiring Chinese ships or using their own Chinese-style ships, as they prefer."

In 1895, following the Qing Dynasty's defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War, according to the Treaty of Shimonoseki signed in April of that year, the Qing government was required to open Chongqing (alongside Suzhou, Hangzhou, and Shashi) as a treaty port, marking Chongqing's engagement with the world.

In February 1898, after long preparation, British merchant Li Deluo piloted the steamship "Lichuan" to Chongqing, marking the first arrival of a steamship in Chongqing.

Political Activities in Late Qing

As early as 1897, reformist thinker and Sichuan's Song Yuren founded the first newspaper in Sichuan, "Yu Bao," advocating reformist ideas. "Yu Bao" ceased publication in April 1898. Revolutionary leader Zou Rong, author of "Revolutionary Army," was born in Chongqing, and today a street near Jiefangbei is named "Zou Rong Road."

In 1903, the first bourgeois revolutionary organization in Sichuan, Gong Qiang Hui, was established in Chongqing. In 1905, the Revolutionary Alliance was founded in Tokyo, Japan. Representatives from Gong Qiang Hui, Tong Xianzhang, and Chen Chonggong joined the Revolutionary Alliance in Tokyo under the command of Sun Yat-sen, returning to Chongqing to establish a branch of the Revolutionary Alliance.

Following the Wuchang Uprising in 1911, responses emerged across the country. The Chongqing branch of the Revolutionary Alliance initiated an uprising, joining forces with the New Army led by Xia Zhishi to enter Chongqing on November 22, declaring Chongqing's independence. On November 23, the Sichuan Military Government was established, appointing Zhang Peijue of the Chongqing Revolutionary Alliance as the commander-in-chief and Xia Zhishi as the deputy commander-in-chief, marking Chongqing's entry into the Republic of China era.

Republican Era

In 1911, due to the stalled construction of the Chengyu Railway, the influential Baolu Movement erupted.

Following the Xinhai Revolution, in 1913, the Sichuan Military Government abolished the prefecture and established Dao counties. Chongqing Prefecture was abolished and replaced by Chuandong Dao, which included Baxian, Jiangjin, Changshou, Qijiang, Nanchuan, Yongchuan, Rongchang, Tongliang, Dazu, Bishan, Wusheng, Hechuan, Jiangbei, Fengjie, Wuxi, Wushan, Yunyang, Wanxian, Kaixian, Daxian, Xuanhan, Kaijiang, Qu, Dazhu, Wanyuan, Zhongxian, Fengdu, Dianjiang, Liangshan, Youyang, Xiushan, Qianjiang, Pengshui, Shizhu, Chengkou, Fuling, and other 36 counties. Today, the main urban area of Chongqing is part of Baxian. Except for Tongnan County, all areas within Chongqing's jurisdiction belong to Chuandong Dao.

In 1921, Liu Xiang established the Commissariat for the Commercial Port in Chongqing, appointing Yang Sen as the commissioner to oversee municipal affairs. At that time, the exact boundaries of the Chongqing urban area were not defined, with administrative authority over the urban areas including parts of the current Yuzhong Peninsula and adjacent residential areas near the former Jiangbei County city. In 1922, the Commissariat for the Commercial Port was renamed the Municipal Office. In 1926, it was renamed again to the Commissariat for the Commercial Port, expanding the city area and initiating urban development. In 1927, it was further renamed to the Municipal Hall, with Pan Wenhua appointed as mayor, delineating the city area as 30 li north and south of the two rivers in Chongqing. However, the boundaries were not clearly defined.

In 1929, Chongqing separated from Baxian and officially became a city, classified as a second-tier municipal city under the National Government, with Pan Wenhua as its first mayor.

From the 5th year of the Republic (1916) to the 24th year (1935), before being upgraded to a first-tier city directly under the jurisdiction of the provincial government, Chongqing successively established the Sichuan Provincial Governor's Office, Sichuan Provincial Governor's Office, Sichuan Military Governor's Office, and Sichuan Provincial Government. It was the actual political center of Sichuan Province at that time.

In 1936, it was reorganized into a first-class municipal city under the jurisdiction of the provincial government managed by Sichuan Province, also managing the regions of Tongzi and Zunyi in Guizhou Province.

On May 5, 1939, the Nanjing National Government issued a decree elevating Chongqing to a first-class central municipal city (directly governed city), making it the sixth central municipal city after Nanjing, Shanghai, Tianjin, Qingdao, and Beiping. The area roughly corresponds to today's main urban area of Chongqing, namely Yuzhong District, Jiulongpo District, Shapingba District, Jiangbei District, and Nan'an District, while Beibei City (now Beibei District) was the seat of the Central Government and Temporary Government.

War-time Capital

The mass migration from Chongqing in 1941

Former site of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea

Main article: Chongqing during the War-time Capital Period

After the outbreak of the War of Resistance against Japan, with the frontline deteriorating, shortly after the start of the Battle of Shanghai, the Nationalist Army fell into passivity. To prevent chaos after the capital fell, the Republic of China government issued the "Declaration of the National Government's Relocation to Chongqing" in November 1937, designating Chongqing as the wartime capital. On the 16th, President Lin Sen of the National Government, following the plan to move the capital, ordered civilian and military officials to inventory important items such as the ROC flag and emblems, and left Nanjing for Chongqing overnight. Only 13 days later, Nanjing fell to the Japanese.

• Chongqing officially became the capital on December 11, 1937.
• In September 1937, Liu Xiang's troops stationed in Chongqing attacked the Japanese concession and declared its recovery.
• In 1938, embassies of the United Kingdom, the United States, France, Belgium, Germany, and Switzerland were relocated to the Republic of China in Chongqing.
• In 1940, Chongqing was again designated as the permanent wartime capital..
• In December 1941, the government of the Republic of China declared war on Nazi Germany in Chongqing, leading to the closure of the German Embassy.
• In December 1941, the provisional government of the Republic of Korea relocated to Chongqing, with offices initially at Yangliu Street, Shibange, Wushiyeyao Lane No. 1, and Lianhuachi Street No. 38 (now the "Former Site of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea" for visiting)..

During the period from 1937 to 1944, Chongqing, as the wartime capital of the Republic of China, saw millions of migrants from the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River basin, including Zhejiang, Hunan, Anhui, Hubei, Jiangsu, and Shanghai, and its surrounding areas. This group was locally known as the "downriver people" in Chongqing.. Meanwhile, thousands of enterprises, schools, and nearly 80,000 tons of gold were relocated to Chongqing, making Chongqing the political, economic, and cultural center of wartime China and the Far East command center for the anti-fascist war.

Additionally, combat aircraft of the National Revolutionary Army Air Force participated in the Battle of the Air Defense of Chongqing to defend the city.