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The '''pre-1600 Atlantic hurricane seasons''' encompasses all known Atlantic [[tropical cyclone]]s prior to 1600. While data for every storm that occurred is unavailable, some parts of the coastline were populated enough to give data of hurricane occurrences.
The '''list of Atlantic hurricanes before 1600''' encompasses all known Atlantic [[tropical cyclone]]s prior to 1600. While data for every storm that occurred is unavailable, some parts of the coastline were populated enough to give data of hurricane occurrences.


<div id="toc" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left:1.5em; margin-bottom:1em; width:20em; font-size: 90%;"><big>'''[[List of Atlantic hurricane seasons|Atlantic hurricane seasons]]'''</big><br />
<div id="toc" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left:1.5em; margin-bottom:1em; width:20em; font-size: 90%;"><big>'''[[List of Atlantic hurricane seasons|Atlantic hurricane seasons]]'''</big><br />

Revision as of 14:16, 8 September 2010

The list of Atlantic hurricanes before 1600 encompasses all known Atlantic tropical cyclones prior to 1600. While data for every storm that occurred is unavailable, some parts of the coastline were populated enough to give data of hurricane occurrences.

Observation data for years before 1492 is completely unavailable because record keeping was virtually non-existent in the pre-Columbian era, and any records that may have once existed have long since been lost. Even data from the early years of the Columbian era is suspect and incomplete because the distinction between a hurricane and an extratropical system was not drawn by Renaissance scientists and sailors and because European exploration and colonization of the regions affected by hurricanes did not begin in earnest until the mid-16th century.

However, paleotempestological research allows reconstruction of pre-historic hurricane activity trends on timescales of centuries to millennia. A theory has been postulated that an anti-phase pattern exists between the Gulf of Mexico coast and the Atlantic coast.[1] During the quiescent periods, a more northeasterly position of the Azores High would result in more hurricanes being steered towards the Atlantic coast. During the hyperactive period, more hurricanes were steered towards the Gulf coast as the Azores High—controlled by the North Atlantic Oscillation—was shifted to a more southwesterly position near the Caribbean. In fact, few major hurricanes struck the Gulf coast during 3000–1400 BC and again during the most recent millennium; these quiescent intervals were separated by a hyperactive period during 1400 BC and 1000 AD, when the Gulf coast was struck frequently by catastrophic hurricanes and their landfall probabilities increased by 3–5 times.[2] On the Atlantic coast, probability of landfalling hurricanes has doubled in the recent millennium compared to the one and a half millennia before.[3]

Using sediment samples from Puerto Rico, the Gulf Coast and the Atlantic Coast from Florida to New England, Michael E. Mann et al. (2009) found consistent evidence of a peak in Atlantic tropical cyclone activity during the Medieval Warm Period followed by a subsequent lull in activity.[4]

Storms

  – only paleotempestological evidence

Pre-1500

Year Date
(GC) 		Area(s) affected Damage/Notes
~1330 BC unknown Nicaragua “Hurricane Elisenda”, similar to Hurricane Joan–Miriam.[5]
~250 BC unknown Belize A major hurricane landfall identified in sediment cores from Gales Point and Mullins River.[6]
~465 unknown Belize A major hurricane landfall identified in sediment cores from the Great Blue Hole.[7]
~765 unknown Belize A major hurricane landfall identified in sediment cores from the Great Blue Hole.[7]
~795 unknown Belize A major hurricane landfall identified in sediment cores from the Great Blue Hole.[7]
~830 unknown Alabama Presumably a category 4 or 5 hurricane that made landfall near Mobile Bay.[8]
~885 unknown Belize A major hurricane landfall identified in sediment cores from the Great Blue Hole.[7]
~1050 unknown Belize A major hurricane landfall identified in sediment cores from the Great Blue Hole.[7]
~1140 unknown Alabama Presumably a category 4 or 5 hurricane that made landfall near Mobile Bay.[8]
~1250 unknown Belize A major hurricane landfall identified in sediment cores from the Great Blue Hole.[7]
~1350±55 unknown New England Intense prehistoric hurricane making landfall near Rhode Island, similar to the 1815 and 1938 storms.[9]
~1310 unknown Belize A major hurricane landfall identified in sediment cores from the Great Blue Hole.[7]
~1330 unknown Belize A major hurricane landfall identified in sediment cores from the Great Blue Hole.[7]
~1430±20 unknown New England Intense prehistoric hurricane making landfall near Rhode Island, similar to the 1815 and 1938 storms.[9]
~1465 unknown Belize A major hurricane landfall identified in sediment cores from the Great Blue Hole.[7]
1494 June 25
 [O.S. June 16] 		Hispaniola A "violent hurricane" struck Hispaniola near La Isabela from southwest. It was the first hurricane in the Atlantic basin observed and reported by Europeans.[10]
1495 late October Hispaniola Also affected La Isabela, damaging some of the ships in the harbor.[11]

1500–1525

Year Date
(GC) 		Area(s) affected Damage/Notes
~1500 unknown Belize A “giant hurricane” much stronger than all other storms in the 5000 year Belizean sedimentary record examined. Compared with Hurricane Hattie, it was “significantly more powerful and capable of achieving catastrophic effects”.[6] Could be identical with either the ~1465 or ~1515 Belize hurricane.
1500 late July Bahamas Pinzón lost two of his vessels near Crooked Island. This is the first hurricane known in the Bahamas, and probably Florida.[12]
1502 July 11–12
 [O.S. July 1–2] 		Hispaniola A rapidly moving hurricane with a small diameter that probably came from vicinity of Grenada, moving northwesterly through the Mona Passage, where it wrecked a convoy of 31 vessels on their way to Spain. According to Las Casas, "twenty ships perished with the storm, without any man, small or great, escaping, and neither dead nor alive could be found." Among those drowned were Bobadilla and Roldán. It was the first great maritime disaster that occurred in the Americas. The storm's center crossed Hispaniola about 40 miles (60 kilometres) east of Santo Domingo.[13]
1502 September 16 Honduras 1 ship sunk, all drowned aboard[citation needed]
1504 unknown North Coast of Colombia 175 deaths[citation needed]
1508 August 13
 [O.S. August 3] 		Hispaniola Moving west-northwest, this hurricane's eye passed near Santo Domingo, leaving the city devastated and the village of Buenaventura "demolished to the level of the ground". According to Oviedo, the natives said they had never witnessed a storm "as intense or even similar in their lives, and they did not remember having heard or seen anything so frightful in their lives or in those of their forefathers." Millás presumes that it developed east of the Lesser Antilles and crossed the chain of islands in the vicinity of Guadeloupe or Dominica. It might have also affected the southern part of Puerto Rico.[14]
1508 August 26
 [O.S. August 16] 		Puerto Rico The storm occurred while Ponce de León was anchoring off the coast of Guaynia. It is the first hurricane known to have struck the island of Puerto Rico.[15]
1509 August 8
 [O.S. July 29] 		Hispaniola This hurricane moved past Santo Domingo just after the festivities marking the arrival of Diego Colón as the new governor of the Indies on July 20 [O.S. July 10]. According to Oviedo, it was "greater than the one of last year, not doing so much damage to the houses, although much greater in the country."[16]
1514 unknown Puerto Rico This storm is reported several months afterwards by Andrés de Haro, but the exact date remains unknown.[17]
~1515 unknown Belize A major hurricane landfall identified in sediment cores from the Great Blue Hole.[7]
1519 unknown Cuba A minor hurricane that rattled a caravel on its way to western Cuba, probably near the southern part of the Pinar del Río province. On board the vessel were Alonso de Zuazo and the two sisters Tavira, after whom the hurricane is named colloquially.[18]
1520 unknown Hispaniola Affected Eastern Hispaniola.[19]
1523 unknown Florida 2 ships and their crews lost on the Western coast of Florida.[citation needed]

1525–1549

Year Date
(GC) 		Area(s) affected Damage/Notes
1525 Late October Western Cuba A "very severe" hurricane sunk a vessel sent by Cortés to Trinidad, Cuba. Of more than eighty persons on the ship, only eight were served.[20]
1525 unknown Honduras Struck the newly established colony of Triunfo de la Cruz.[19]
1526 June North Carolina A Spanish brigantine of the fleet under command of Vázquez de Ayllón was lost near Cape Fear.[21]
1526 October 14–15
 [O.S. October 4–5] 		Puerto Rico, Eastern Hispaniola Violent hurricane that moved slowly over the north of Puerto Rico on October 14 and affected Eastern Hispaniola on October 15. Millás presumes that it progressed westwardly or west-northwestwardly and therefore might also affected the northern group of the Leeward Islands and the Virgin Islands.[22]
1527 October 30–31
 [O.S. October 20–21] 		Western Cuba Destroyed two ships of Narváez' fleet in the port of Trinidad, Cuba. Cabeza de Vaca delivers a detailed report on this hurricane, but does not mention the exact date. Millás dated it to October 30–31.[23]
1527 November Upper Texas Coast 1 of only 2 November Texas hurricanes, Merchant fleet destroyed, 200 deaths.[citation needed]
1527 unknown Eastern Hispaniola Made landfall at Santo Domingo.[19]
1528 June 23 or 30
 [O.S. June 13 or 20] 		Aruba A vessel was struck by the hurricane north of Aruba in the Caribbean Sea, and it drove them westwardly for nearly four days until they ran aground on Serrana Bank.[24] A castaway reportedly lived on the cay for eight years before he was rescued, which eventually spun to the tale of Pedro Serrano.
1528 October 2 Apalachee Bay Narvaez Expedition shipwrecked, more than 400 dead.[25]
1528 unknown Hispaniola A letter, dated November 2, 1528, reports about ship being lost on its way from Mexico to Santo Domingo.[26]
1529 July 28–29 Puerto Rico made landfall at San Juan de Puerto Rico
~1530 unknown Belize A major hurricane landfall identified in sediment cores from the Great Blue Hole.[7]
1530 August 5
 [O.S. July 26] 		Puerto Rico Hurricane of modest intensity, with much rain.[27] Affected the entire island and destroyed half of the houses in San Juan.[28]
1530 September 1
 [O.S. August 22] 		Puerto Rico Weak hurricane, with much more rain than violent winds, that caused more extensive flooding and crop damage.[28][29]
1530 September 10
 [O.S. August 31] 		Puerto Rico A severe hurricane, which along with the first storm of that year was responsible for the condition of great suffering and poverty on Puerto Rico in the 1530s.[30]
1533 October 31 – November 2
 [O.S. October 21–23] 		Leeward Islands Oviedo mentions the case of two vessels that sailed from Santo Domingo to Spain, but where knocked off course by a hurricane probably north of the Leeward Islands, and returned to Puerto Plata forty days later.[31]
1537 unknown Cuba Two ships lost near Havana.[32]
1537 unknown Puerto Rico Many slaves drowned. Possibly as much as three hurricanes, but more likely one, probably occurred between June and early September.[33]
1541 unknown Venezuela A hurricane-like storm destroyed the remains of Nueva Cádiz.[34]
1545 August 20
 [O.S. August 10] 		Hispaniola An eyewitness account on this storm is delivered by Oviedo. This hurricane was small in diameter but very intense. It came from a south-southeasterly direction, passed Hispaniola west of Santo Domingo, where it caused many casualties, and moved rapidly north-northwestwardly.[35]
1545 September 17–18
 [O.S. September 7–8] 		Puerto Rico, Hispaniola Not a severe hurricane, but one of great diameter and slow movement, with excessive rain causing the greater damage.[36]
1545 unknown Mexico 1 ship lost.[citation needed]
1545 unknown Cuba Made landfall at Havana.[19]
1546 September 3
 [O.S. August 24] 		Puerto Rico Made landfall at San Juan de Puerto Rico.[19]
1549 unknown Hispaniola The storm wrecked the vessel "San Juan" in the port of Nombre de Dios, near Santo Domingo.[37]

1550–1574

Year Date
(GC) 		Area(s) affected Damage/Notes
1550 unknown Florida Keys Ship lost near Havana.[citation needed]
~1551 unknown Florida Reported by Fontaneda, who survived a ship wreck and was enslaved by the Calusa.[38]
1551 unknown Cuba Of this storm Melero mentions only the year in the Anales de la Academia de Ciencias de la Habana.[39]
1551 unknown Gulf of Honduras Reported by Diego de Landa. One ship sunk, all but five passengers drowned.[39]
1552 August 28–29 Dominican Republic made landfall at Santo Domingo.[19]
1552 September 2–4 Mexico made landfall at Vera Cruz.[19]
1552 September 3–6 Florida N/A.[citation needed]
1553 September 22
 [O.S. September 12] 		Hispaniola Affected Santo Domingo.[40]
1553 unknown Western Florida 700 casualties.[citation needed]
1553 unknown Texas Sixteen ships lost. Many drownings.[citation needed]
1554 ~June Gulf of Mexico Coming from Mexico, three vessels were caught by a hurricane off the northwestern coast of Cuba, and carried toward the coast of Florida, where they stranded. Probably a weak storm since no ship was sunk or badly disabled.[41]
1554 ~August/September Bahamas Two vessels carrying a load of silver were wrecked by a storm near Great Inagua.[42]
1554 November 14
 [O.S. November 4] 		Cuba A fleet of four vessels, commanded by Farfán, on its way from Havana to San Juan, Puerto Rico, was hit by a storm off the coast of Oriente. The admiral's ship was sunk.[43]
1554 unknown South Texas Three ships lost.[citation needed]
1557 October 27
 [O.S. October 17] 		Cuba A severe hurricane struck almost the western part of the island, extending from Pinar del Río eastward to Matanzas. It came from the western Caribbean Sea, moving probably from a southerly or a southwesterly direction.[44]
1559 September 29
 [O.S. September 19] 		Florida In their attempt to start a colony in Florida, Arellano's fleet of five wessels was caught by a hurricane while anchoring in Pensacola Bay. Five ships, a galleon and a bark were destroyed, and one caravel and its cargo was carried into a grove some distance on land. The Spanish would not attempt to settle a colony in Western Florida again until 1693.[45]
1565 July 31 – August 2
 [O.S. July 21–23] 		Atlantic Ocean A fleet of five ships, commanded by Menéndez, was dispersed by a violent hurricane east of the Leeward Islands.[46]
1565 September 22
 [O.S. September 12] 		Florida An offshore storm that sank Ribault’s fleet and led to the fall of Fort Caroline, and eventually the loss of French influence in northeast Florida.[47][48]
1566 September 13–14
 [O.S. September 3–4] 		Florida An offshore hurricane on the northeast Florida and upper/lower Georgia coastal waters.[47]
1566 September 24–26
 [O.S. September 14–16] 		Florida A more severe offshore hurricane on the northeast Florida and Georgia coastal waters.[47]
1566 unknown Gulf of Mexico Four ships destroyed. 5+ casualties.[citation needed]
1567 unknown Near Dominica Six ships destroyed.[citation needed]
1568 August 22
 [O.S. August 12] 		Yucatan Channel A hurricane of large diameter but only weak or moderate intensity affected the fleet of Hawkins near Cape San Antonio, Cuba.[49] They straggled into the Spanish-controlled port of San Juan de Ulúa, Mexico, where after an initial truce they were attacked by a Spanish fleet.
1568 September 3
 [O.S. August 24] 		Puerto Rico Reported by Torres Vargas, a severe hurricane that caused widespread damage in San Juan and in Santo Domingo.[28][50]
1568 September 7
 [O.S. August 28] 		Florida The second hurricane that struck the fleet of Hawkins.[51]
1569 September Bahamas passed the Old Bahama Channel.[19]
1571 ~September/October Florida Heavy flooding in St. Augustine, Florida, two ships lost[47]
1571 October 18–21 Cuba, Jamaica N/A.[19]
1573 August Atlantic Ocean A ship was struck by a hurricane in the vicinity of the Virgin Islands.[52]

1575–1599

Year Date
(GC) 		Area(s) affected Damage/Notes
1575 October 1
 [O.S. September 21] 		Puerto Rico Severe storm mentioned in the memoirs of Torres Vargas, that struck the island on Saint Matthew's Day.[53]
1576 unknown Hispaniola made landfall at Monte Cristi Province.[19]
1577 ~August/September Cuba/Jamaica N/A.[19]
1578 unknown Hispaniola made landfall at Ocoa.[19]
1578 October Cuba/Jamaica N/A.[19]
1579 ~August Caribbean Sea A storm struck a vessel sailing from Havana, Cuba to Isla Margarita.[54]
1579 September 13 Bermudas N/A.[19]
1579 September 26 Bermudas N/A.[19]
1579 unknown Atlantic Ocean Spanish Armada's 600 ton Almirante sunk.[citation needed]
1579 unknown Jamaica N/A.[19]
1583 August 19
 [O.S. August 9] 		Hispaniola made landfall at Santo Domingo.[19]
1583 September Hispaniola López de Avila reports a hurricane that "ruined the fruit at the beginning of September (J.C.)".[55] Could be identical with the August 19 storm.
1586 June 23–26
 [O.S. June 13–16] 		Roanoke Island Reported by Lane: "The weather was so sore and the storme [sic] so great than out anchors would not hold, and no ship of them all but either broke or lost their anchors."[56][57]
1586 unknown Bahamas Nine ships lost, possibly related to above.[citation needed]
1587 August 31
 [O.S. August 21] 		Roanoke Island Sir Francis Drake took six days to regroup in Roanoke after the storm.[57]
1588 unknown Roanoke Island 116 casualties. Third of four hurricanes to hit the area in five years.[citation needed]
1588 September 20
 [O.S. September 10] 		Cuba A furious hurricane, more destructive than that of 1557, made landfall near Havanna.[19][58]
1588 November 4–6 Colombia made landfall near Cartagena de Indias.[19]
1589 August 7 Leeward Islands N/A.[19]
1589 September 9 Bahamas four ships sank.[19]
1589 unknown Florida Passed near Cape Canaveral.[19]
~1590 unknown Gulf of Mexico "Early 1590". 1000 casualties.[citation needed]
1591 August 20
 [O.S. August 10] 		Atlantic Ocean The Spanish treasure fleet of 77 vessels, sailing from Havana to Spain, was caught by a the first of four hurricanes during the 1591 season.[57] The general of the fleet, with 500 men on board, foundered.[59]
1591 August 23–24
 [O.S. August 13–14] 		Atlantic Ocean Another hurricane hit the fleet three or four days after the first storm. Five or six of the largest ships sunk, including all of their crews.[59]
1591 August 26
 [O.S. August 16] 		Roanoke Island “For at this time the wind blew at northeast and direct into the harbor so great a gale that the sea broke extremely on the bar, and the tide went out forcibly at the entrance.”[57][60]
1591 September Florida made landfall near Las Tortugas.[19][47]
1591 ~September 9–10
 [O.S. ~August 30–31] 		Atlantic Ocean About the end of August (J.C.), another the third cyclone caught the Spanish fleet, during which 22 vessels foundered.[59]
1591 September 16
 [O.S. September 6] 		Azores Within sight of Flores Island, the remains of the fleet were separated by another storm.[59]
1591 September 21 Puerto Rico N/A.[19]
1591 September 24 Cuba N/A.[19]
1593 ~July 25
 [O.S. ~July 15] 		Puerto Rico A storm passed the seas north of the island.[61][62]
1594 unknown Caribbean Sea One ship lost on its way from Panama to the Lesser Antilles.[63]
1594 unknown Hispaniola made landfall near Santo Domingo.[19]
1594 unknown Cuba made landfall near Havana.[19]
1595 August 29–30 Cuba made landfall near Havana.[19]
1597 ~September–November Jamaica A hurricane reported by Padrón.[64]
1599 ~June/July Bahamas Castillo was struck by this hurricane near Great Inagua Island.[65]
1599 September 22 Florida made landfall near St. Augustine.[47]

See also

References

  1. ^ McCloskey, T. A. (2009), "Migration of the tropical cyclone zone throughout the Holocene", in Elsner, J. B.; Jagger, T. H. (ed.), Hurricanes and Climate Change, New York: Springer, ISBN 9780387094090 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
  2. ^ Liu, Kam-biu (2000), "Reconstruction of Prehistoric Landfall Frequencies of Catastrophic Hurricanes in Northwestern Florida from Lake Sediment Records", Quaternary Research, 54 (2): 238–245, doi:10.1006/qres.2000.2166. {{citation}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  3. ^ Scott, D. B. (2003), "Records of prehistoric hurricanes on the South Carolina coast based on micropaleontological and sedimentological evidence, with comparison to other Atlantic Coast records", Geological Society of America Bulletin, 115 (9): 1027–1039, doi:10.1130/B25011.1. {{citation}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  4. ^ Mann, Michael E.; Woodruff, Jonathan D.; Donnelly, Jeffrey P.; Zhang, Zhihua (2009), "Atlantic hurricanes and climate over the past 1,500 years", Nature, 460 (7257): 880–883, doi:10.1038/nature08219, PMID 19675650 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |lastauthoramp= ignored (|name-list-style= suggested) (help)
  5. ^ Urquhart, Gerald R. (2009), "Paleoecological record of hurricane disturbance and forest regeneration in Nicaragua", Quaternary International, 195 (1–2): 88–97, doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2008.05.012. {{citation}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |month= and |coauthors= (help)
  6. ^ a b McCloskey, T. A. (2009), "5000 year sedimentary record of hurricane strikes on the central coast of Belize", Quaternary International, 195 (1–2): 53–68, doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2008.03.003. {{citation}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Gischler, Eberhard; Shinn, Eugene A.; Oschmann, Wolfgang; Fiebig, Jens; Buster, Noreen A. (2008), "A 1500-Year Holocene Caribbean Climate Archive from the Blue Hole, Lighthouse Reef, Belize", Journal of Coastal Research, 24 (6): 1495–1505, doi:10.2112/07-0891.1
  8. ^ a b Liu, Kam-biu (2008), "A 1200-year proxy record of hurricanes and fires from the Gulf of Mexico coast: Testing the hypothesis of hurricane–fire interactions", Quaternary Research, 69 (1): 29–41, doi:10.1016/j.yqres.2007.10.011. {{citation}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  9. ^ a b Donnelly, Jeffrey P. (2001), "700 yr Sedimentary Record of Intense Hurricane Landfalls in Southern New England", Geological Society of America Bulletin, 113 (6): 714–727, doi:10.1130/0016-7606(2001)113<0714:YSROIH>2.0.CO;2. {{citation}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  10. ^ Millás 1968, pp. 28–29.
  11. ^ Millás 1968, pp. 31–35.
  12. ^ Millás 1968, pp. 35–37.
  13. ^ Millás 1968, pp. 38–41.
  14. ^ Millás 1968, pp. 42–44.
  15. ^ Millás 1968, pp. 44–45.
  16. ^ Millás 1968, p. 45.
  17. ^ Millás 1968, pp. 47–48.
  18. ^ Millás 1968, pp. 49–50.
  19. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab García-Herrera, Ricardo; Gimeno, Luis; Ribera, Pedro; Hernández, Emiliano (2005), "New records of Atlantic hurricanes from Spanish documentary sources", Journal of Geophysical Research, 110: D03109, doi:10.1029/2004JD005272 data.
  20. ^ Millás 1968, pp. 50–51.
  21. ^ Stick, David (1999) [1952], Graveyard of the Atlantic: Shipwrecks of the North Carolina Coast, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, ISBN 0807842613.
  22. ^ Millás 1968, pp. 51–52.
  23. ^ Millás 1968, pp. 52–57.
  24. ^ Millás 1968, pp. 57–58.
  25. ^ Lowery, Woodbury (1901), The Spanish settlements within the present limits of the United States, 1513-1561, New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, p. 198
  26. ^ Millás 1968, p. 58.
  27. ^ Millás 1968, p. 60.
  28. ^ a b c Hurricanes and Tropical Storms in Puerto Rico from 1500 to 1899
  29. ^ Millás 1968, pp. 60–61.
  30. ^ Millás 1968, p. 61.
  31. ^ Millás 1968, pp. 63–64.
  32. ^ Millás 1968, pp. 64–65.
  33. ^ Millás 1968, pp. 66–67.
  34. ^ Vila, P. (1948), "La destrucción de Nueva Cádiz ¿terremoto o huracán?", Boletín de la Academia National de la Historia, 31: 213–219. {{citation}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |month= and |coauthors= (help)
  35. ^ Millás 1968, pp. 67–69.
  36. ^ Millás 1968, pp. 69–70.
  37. ^ Millás 1968, p. 70.
  38. ^ Millás 1968, p. 71.
  39. ^ a b Millás 1968, p. 72.
  40. ^ Millás 1968, p. 73.
  41. ^ Millás 1968, pp. 76–77.
  42. ^ Millás 1968, pp. 75–76.
  43. ^ Millás 1968, pp. 74–75.
  44. ^ Millás 1968, pp. 78–80.
  45. ^ Bense, Judith Ann (1999), Archaeology of colonial Pensacola, Gainesville: University Press of Florida, p. 6, ISBN 0813016614.
  46. ^ Millás 1968, p. 81.
  47. ^ a b c d e f NOAA Technical Memorandum NWS SR-224: Chronological listing of tropical cyclones affecting North Florida and Coastal Georgia 1565-1899
  48. ^ Millás 1968, p. 82.
  49. ^ Millás 1968, pp. 82–84.
  50. ^ Millás 1968, p. 84.
  51. ^ Millás 1968, pp. 84–85.
  52. ^ Millás 1968, p. 85–86.
  53. ^ Millás 1968, p. 86.
  54. ^ Millás 1968, pp. 86–87.
  55. ^ Millás 1968, p. 87.
  56. ^ Quinn, David Beers, ed. (1955), The Roanoke voyages, 1584-1590: Documents to illustrate the English voyages to North America under the patent granted to Walter Raleigh in 1584, Hakluyt Society Publications, vol. 104, London: Quaritch, p. 302
  57. ^ a b c d Ludlum 1963, p. 9.
  58. ^ Millás 1968, pp. 87–88.
  59. ^ a b c d Southey, Thomas (1827), Chronological history of the West Indies, vol. 1, London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, & Green, p. 212.
  60. ^ Quinn 1955, 2, p. 608, 611.
  61. ^ Andrews, Kenneth Raymond, ed. (1959), English privateering voyages to the West Indies, 1588-1595, Hakluyt Society Publications, vol. 111, London: Cambridge University Press, p. 288.
  62. ^ Millás 1968, pp. 88–89.
  63. ^ Millás 1968, pp. 89–90.
  64. ^ Millás 1968, pp. 90–91.
  65. ^ Millás 1968, pp. 91–92.

Further reading

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