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Taxonomy of Protista: Difference between revisions

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→‎Unikonta (Sarcomastigota) Cavalier-Smith, 1987: Added the updated taxonomy of the Amoebozoa down to genus level, with citations, as well as some explanation for the paraphyletic groupings. Also added a distinction between protozoa and chromista.
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The following groups contain protists. The clade [[Opisthokonta]] also contains the animals and the fungi, and the kingdom [[Archaeplastida]] also contains algae and plants.
The following groups contain protists. The clade [[Opisthokonta]] also contains the animals and the fungi, and the kingdom [[Archaeplastida]] also contains algae and plants.


Since not all taxa are [[monophyletic]], those which are [[paraphyletic]] are written between brackets.
=[[Unikonta]] (Sarcomastigota) <small>Cavalier-Smith, 1987</small>=
=Kingdom "Protozoa" {{small|Godfuss 1817}}=

The "[[Protozoa]]" are a [[paraphyletic]] assemblage of several groups of heterotrophic microorganisms. They are divided into two main groups: "[[Sarcomastigota]]", which contains the protist phyla more closely related to [[fungi]] and [[animals]] ([[Amoebozoa]], "[[Choanozoa]]", [[Microsporidia]], "[[Sulcozoa]]"); and "[[Eozoa]]", which contains the [[excavates]] ([[Euglenozoa]], [[Percolozoa]], "[[Loukozoa]]", [[Metamonada]]).<ref name="Higher">{{cite journal|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0119248|journal=PLOS ONE|date=2015|title=A Higher Level Classification of All Living
==Phylum [[Amoebozoa]] <small>Cavalier-Smith, 1998</small>==
Organisms|vauthors=Ruggiero MA, Gordon DP, Orrell TM, Bailly N, Bourgoin T, Brusca RC, Cavalier-Smith T, Guiry MD, Kirk PM}}</ref>
* Subphylum [[Conosa]]
** Infraphylum [[Archamoeba]] <small>Cavalier-Smith, 1983</small>
==Phylum [[Amoebozoa]] <small>Lühe 1913 em. Cavalier-Smith 1998</small>==
The current classification of [[Amoebozoa]] isn't entirely phylogenetic at the high-level taxa: subphylum "[[Lobosa]]" is a paraphyletic group ("[[Glycopoda]]" and [[Cutosa]]) as opposed to the monophyletic subphylum [[Conosa]], and inside "[[Lobosa]]" itself the superclass "[[Glycopoda]]" is also a paraphyletic grouping ([[Discosea]] and [[Tubulinea]]) as opposed to the monophyletic superclass [[Cutosa]].
*** Class [[Archamoeba]]
Phylogenetic trees show that [[Discosea]] is sister to [[Tevosa]] ([[Tubulinea]] + [[Evosea]]), and [[Tubulinea]] is sister to [[Evosea]] ([[Cutosa]] + [[Conosa]])<ref name="BetweenPod"/> as shown below:
**** Order [[Mastigamoebida]]
{{clade|label1=[[Amoebozoa]]|1={{clade|style=background-color:#d1fdff;|bar1=blue|1=[[Discosea]]|label2=[[Tevosa]]|2={{clade|1=[[Tubulinea]]|bar1=blue|label2=[[Evosea]]|2={{clade|1=[[Cutosa]]|bar1=blue|2=[[Conosa]]&nbsp;&nbsp;|style2=background-color:#ebd1ff;}}}}}}
***** Family [[Mastigamoebidae]]
|grouplabel1={{clade labels|label1="[[Lobosa]]"|top=40%}}
***** Family [[Endolimacidae]]
}}
**** Order [[Pelobiontida]]
*'''Subphylum "[[Lobosa]]"''' {{small|Carpenter 1861 em. Cavalier-Smith 2009}} ([[paraphyletic]])
***** Family [[Pelomyxidae]] <small>Greef, 1874</small>
**'''Superclass "[[Glycopoda]]"''' {{small|Cavalier-Smith 2016}} ([[paraphyletic]])
***** Family [[Entamoebidae]]
***'''Class [[Discosea]]''' {{small|Cavalier-Smith et al. 2004 sensu Smirnov et al. 2011}}
** Infraphylum [[Mycetozoa]]
****'''Subclass [[Centramoebia]]''' {{small|Cavalier-Smith et al. 2016}}<ref name="187">{{cite journal|vauthors=Cavalier-Smith T, Chao EE, Lewis R|title=187-gene phylogeny of protozoan phylum Amoebozoa reveals a new class (Cutosea) of deep-branching, ultrastructurally unique, enveloped marine Lobosa and clarifies amoeba evolution|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|volume=99|date=2016|pages=275-296|issn=1055-7903|doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2016.03.023|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S105579031630015X}}</ref>
*** Class [[Stelamoebea]]
*****'''Order [[Centramoebida]]''' {{small|Rogerson & Patterson 2002 em. Cavalier-Smith 2004}}
**** Order [[Protostelida]]
******Family [[Acanthamoebidae]] {{small|Sawyer & Griffin 1975 em. Tice et al. 2016}}<ref name="Tice2016">{{cite journal|vauthors=Tice AK, Shadwick LL, Fiore-Donno AM, etal.|title=Expansion of the molecular and morphological diversity of Acanthamoebidae (Centramoebida, Amoebozoa) and identification of a novel life cycle type within the group|journal=Biol Direct|volume=11|pages=69 |date=2016|doi=10.1186/s13062-016-0171-0}}</ref> – ''[[Acanthamoeba]]'', ''[[Luapeleamoeba]]'', ''[[Protacanthamoeba]]'', ''[[Dracoamoeba]]'', ''[[Vacuolamoeba]]''
***** Family [[Protosteliidae]]
******Family [[Balamuthiidae]] {{small|Cavalier-Smith 2004}} – ''[[Balamuthia]]''
***** Family [[Cavosteliidae]]
**** Order [[Dictyosteliida]]
*****'''Order [[Himatismenida]]''' {{small|Page 1987}}
******Suborder [[Tectiferina]] {{small|Cavalier-Smith & Smirnov in Smirnov et al. 2011}}
***** Family [[Acytosteliidae]]
*******Family [[Cochliopodiidae]] {{small|De Saedeleer 1934}} – ''[[Cochliopodium]]'', ''[[Coenopodium]]'', ''[[Ovalopodium]]''
***** Family [[Dictyosteliidae]]
******Suborder [[Parvamoebina]] {{small|Cavalier-Smith & Smirnov in Smirnov et al. 2011}}
*** Class [[Myxogastrea]]
*******Family [[Parvamoebidae]] {{small|Cavalier-Smith & Smirnov 2011}} – ''[[Parvamoeba]]''
**** Order [[Parastelida]]
******Suborder [[Pellitina]] {{small|Smirnov & Cavalier-Smith in Smirnov et al. 2011 em. Kudryavtsev et al. 2014 stat. nov. Cavalier-Smith}}
***** Family [[Ceratiomyxidae]]
*******Family [[Goceviidae]] {{small|Cavalier-Smith & Smirnov in Smirnov et al. 2011 em. Kudryavtsev et al. 2014}} – ''[[Gocevia]]'', ''[[Paragocevia]]'', ''[[Endostelium]]''
**** Order [[Echinosteliida]]
*******Family [[Pellitidae]] {{small|Smirnov & Kudryavtsev 2005}} – ''[[Pellita]]''
***** Family [[Echinosteliidae]]
****'''Subclass [[Flabellinia]]''' {{small|Smirnov et al. 2005}}
***** Family [[Clastodermidae]]
*****'''Order [[Dermamoebida]]''' {{small|Cavalier-Smith in Cavalier-Smith et al. 2004 em. Smirnov et al. 2011}}
**** Order [[Liceida]]
******Family [[Dermamoebidae]] {{small|Cavalier-Smith & Smirnov in Smirnov et al. 2011}} – ''[[Dermamoeba]]'', ''[[Paradermamoeba]]''
***** Family [[Listerellidae]]
***** Family [[Liceidae]]
******Family [[Mayorellidae]] {{small|Schaeffer 1926}} – ''[[Mayorella]]''
*****'''Order [[Glycostylida]]''' {{small|Cavalier-Smith in Cavalier-Smith et al. 2004 em. 2016}}
***** Family [[Enteridiidae]]
******Suborder [[Vannellina]] {{small|Smirnov et al. 2005 stat. nov. Cavalier-Smith 2016}}
**** Order [[Trichiida]]
*******Family [[Vannellidae]] {{small|Bovee, 1979}} – ''[[Vannella]]'', ''[[Clydonella]]'', ''[[Lingulamoeba]]'', ''[[Ripella]]'', ''[[Paravannella]]'', ''[[Pessonella]]''
***** Family [[Dianemidae]]
******Suborder [[Dactylopodina]] {{small|Smirnov et al. 2005 stat. n. Cavalier-Smith 2016}}
***** Family [[Trichiidae]]
*******Family [[Paramoebidae]] {{small|Poche 1913 em. Kudryavtsev et al. 2011, 2015}} – ''[[Paramoeba]]'', ''[[Cunea]]'', ''[[Pseudoparamoeba]]'', ''[[Janickina]]'', ''[[Korotnevella]]''
**** Order [[Stemonitida]]
***** Family [[Stemonitidae]]
*******Family [[Vexilliferidae]] {{small|Page 1987}} – ''[[Vexillifera]]''
******Suborder [[Stygamoebina]] {{small|Smirnov and Cavalier-Smith in Smirnov et al. 2011 stat. nov. 2016}}
**** Order [[Physarida]]
*******Family [[Stygamoebidae]] {{small|Smirnov & Cavalier-Smith in Smirnov et al. 2011}} – ''[[Stygamoeba]]''
***** Family [[Elaeomyxidae]]
*****'''Order [[Thecamoebida]] ''' {{small|Smirnov & Cavalier-Smith in Smirnov et al. 2011}}
***** Family [[Physaridae]]
******Family [[Thecamoebidae]] {{small|Schaeffer 1926 em. Smirnov et al. 2011}} – ''[[Thecamoeba]]'', ''[[Pseudothecamoeba]]'', ''[[Thecochaos]]''
***** Family [[Didymiidae]]
******Family [[Stenamoebidae]] {{small|Cavalier-Smith 2016}} – ''[[Sappinia]]'', ''[[Stenamoeba]]''
* Subphylum [[Lobosa]] (Lobosea)
******Family [[Vermistellidae]] {{small|Cavalier-Smith 2016}}<ref name="187"/> – ''[[Vermistella]]''
** Class [[Discosea]]
***'''Class [[Tubulinea]]''' {{small|Smirnov et al. 2005}}
*** Order [[Dermamoebida]]
****'''Subclass [[Corycidia]]''' {{small|Kang et al. 2017}}<ref name="BetweenPod">{{cite journal|first1=Seungho|last1=Kang|first2=Alexander K |last2=Tice|first3=Frederick W |last3=Spiegel|first4=Jeffrey D |last4=Silberman|first5=Tomáš |last5=Pánek|first6=Ivan |last6=Čepička|first7=Martin |last7=Kostka|first8=Anush |last8=Kosakyan|first9=Daniel M C |last9=Alcântara|first10=Andrew J |last10=Roger|first11=Lora L |last11=Shadwick|first12=Alexey |last12=Smirnov|first13=Alexander |last13=Kudryavtsev|first14=Daniel J G |last14=Lahr|first15=Matthew W |last15=Brown|title=Between a Pod and a Hard Test: The Deep Evolution of Amoebae|journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution|volume=34|issue=9|date=September 2017|pages=2258–2270|pmid=28505375|pmc=5850466|doi=10.1093/molbev/msx162|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5850466/}}</ref>
**** Family [[Thecamoebidae]]
*** Order [[Glycostylida]]
*****'''Order [[Trichosida]]''' {{small|Moebius 1889}}
******Family [[Trichosphaeriidae]] {{small|Sheehan & Banner 1973}} – ''[[Trichosphaerium]]'', ?''[[Pontifex (genus)|Pontifex]]'', ?''[[Atrichosa]]''
**** Family [[Vannellidae]]
******Family [[Microcoryciidae]] {{small|de Saedeleer 1934}} – ''[[Amphizonella]]'', ''[[Diplochlamys (protist)|Diplochlamys]]'', ''[[Microcorycia]]'', ''[[Parmulina]]'', ''[[Penardochlamys]]'', ''[[Zonomyxa]]''
**** Family [[Multiciliidae]]
****'''Subclass [[Echinamoebia]]''' {{small|Cavalier-Smith 2016}}<ref name="187"/>
**** Family [[Vexilliferidae]]
*****'''Order [[Echinamoebida]]''' {{small|Cavalier-Smith in Cavalier-Smith et al. 2004 em. stat. nov. Smirnov et al. 2011}}
**** Family [[Paramoebidae]]
******Family [[Echinamoebidae]] {{small|Page 1975}} – ''[[Echinamoeba]]'', ''[[Micriamoeba]]''
*** Order [[Himatismenida]]
******Family [[Vermamoebidae]] {{small|Cavalier-Smith & Smirnov in Smirnov et al. 2011}} – ''[[Vermamoeba]]''
**** Family [[Cochliopodiidae]]
****'''Subclass [[Elardia]]''' {{small|Kang et al. 2017}}<ref name="BetweenPod"/>
** Class [[Tubulinea]]
*****'''Order [[Leptomyxida]]''' {{small|Pussard & Pons 1976 sensu Page 1987}}
*** Order [[Arcellinida]]
******Family [[Leptomyxidae]] {{small|Pussard & Pons 1976}} – ''[[Leptomyxa]]'' {{small|Goodey 1915}} (9)<ref name=Smirnov2017/><ref name="valladaresi">{{cite journal|first1=Alvaro De Obeso Fernandez |last1=Del Valle|first2=Jacob |last2=Lorenzo-Morales|first3=Sutherland K. |last3=Maciver|title=''Leptomyxa valladaresi'' n. sp. (Amoebozoa, Tubulinea, Leptomyxida), from Mount Teide, Tenerife, Spain|journal=Experimental Parasitology|volume=183|date=2017|pages=85-91|issn=0014-4894|doi=10.1016/j.exppara.2017.09.017|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0014489417304344}}</ref><ref name="Leptomixaambigua">{{cite journal|first1=Alexey |last1=Smirnov|title=Fine structure of ''Leptomyxa ambigua'' n. sp. CCAP 1546/2 strain, formerly known as “''Rhizamoeba flabellata''” (Amoebozoa, Tubulinea, Leptomyxida)|journal=European Journal of Protistology|volume=62|date=2018|pages=95-100|issn=0932-4739|doi=10.1016/j.ejop.2017.12.001|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S093247391730158X}}</ref>
**** Suborder [[Arcellina]]
******Family [[Rhizamoebidae]] {{small|Smirnov et al. 2016}} – ''[[Rhizamoeba]]'' {{small|Page 1972 em. Smirnov et al. 2016}} (3)<ref name=Smirnov2017>{{cite journal|first1=Alexey |last1=Smirnov|first2=Elena |last2=Nassonova|first3=Stefan |last3=Geisen|first4=Michael |last4=Bonkowski|first5=Alexander|last5=Kudryavtsev|first6=Cedric |last6=Berney|first7=Anna |last7=Glotova|first8=Natalya |last8=Bondarenko|first9=Iva |last9=Dyková|first10=Martin |last10=Mrva|first11=Jose |last11=Fahrni|first12=Jan |last12=Pawlowski|title=Phylogeny and Systematics of Leptomyxid Amoebae (Amoebozoa, Tubulinea, Leptomyxida)|journal=Protist|volume=168|issue=2|date=2017|pages=220-252|issn=1434-4610|doi=10.1016/j.protis.2016.10.006|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1434461016300670}}</ref>
***** Family [[Arcellidae]]
******Family [[Flabellulidae]] {{small|Bovee 1970}} – ''[[Flabellula]]'' {{small|Schaeffer 1926}}, (incl. ''[[Paraflabellula]]'' {{small|Page & Willumsen 1983}}) (10)<ref name=Smirnov2017/>
***** Family [[Microchlamyiidae]]
******Family [[Gephyramoebidae]] {{small|Pussard & Pons 1976}} – ''[[Gephyramoeba]]'' {{small|Goodey 2015}} (1)<ref name=Smirnov2017/>
***** Family [[Microcoryciidae]]
*****'''Superorder [[Eulobosia]]''' {{small|Cavalier-smith 2016}}
**** Suborder [[Difflugiina]]
****** '''Order [[Arcellinida]]''' {{small|Kent 1880}}
***** Family [[Centropyxidae]]
*******Suborder [[Phryganellina]] {{small|Bovee 1985}}
***** Family [[Difflugiidae]]
********Family [[Phryganellidae]] {{small|Jung 1942}} – ''[[Phryganella]]'' {{small|Penard 1902}}
***** Family [[Distomatopyxidae]]
********Family [[Cryptodifflugiidae]] {{small|Jung 1942}} – ''[[Cryptodifflugia]]'' {{small|Penard 1890}} (23)<ref name="ReviewCryptodifflugia">{{cite journal|doi=10.11646/zootaxa.4282.2.4|journal=Zootaxa|date=2017|volume=4282|issue=2|pages=292-308|title=A review of testate amoeba genus Cryptodifflugia Penard, 1890 (Phryganellina: Cryptodifflugiidae) with a key to species|first1=Anatoly|last1=Bobrov|first2=Yuri|last2=Mazei}}</ref>
***** Family [[Heleoperidae]]
*******Suborder [[Organoconcha]] {{small|Lahr et al. 2019}}
***** Family [[Hyalospheniidae]]
********Family [[Microchlamyiidae]] {{small|Ogden 1985}} – ''[[Microchlamys]]'' {{small|Cockerell 1911}}, ''[[Spumochlamys]]'' {{small|Kudryavtsev & Hausmann 2007}}, ''[[Pyxidicula]]'' {{small|Ehrenberg 1838}}
***** Family [[Lamtopyxidae]]
*******Suborder [[Glutinoconcha]] {{small|Lahr et al. 2019}}
***** Family [[Lesquereusiidae]]
********Infraorder [[Volnustoma]] {{small|Lahr et al. 2019}}
***** Family [[Nebelidae]]
*********Family [[Heleoperidae]] {{small|Jung 1942}} – ''[[Heleopera]]'' {{small|Leidy 1879}}
***** Family [[Paraquadrulidae]]
********Infraorder [[Hyalospheniformes]] {{small|Lahr et al. 2019}}
***** Family [[Plagiopyxidae]]
*********Family [[Hyalospheniidae]] {{small|Schultze 1877 emend. Kosakyan et al. 2012}} – ''[[Alabasta]]'' {{small|Duckert et al. 2018}}, ''[[Alocodera]]'' {{small|Jung 1942}}, ''[[Apodera]]'' {{small|Loeblich and Tappan 1961}}, ''[[Certesella]]'' {{small|Loeblich and Tappan 1961}}, ''[[Cornutheca]]'' {{small|Kosakyan et al. 2016}}, ''[[Gibbocarina]]'' {{small|Kosakyan et al. 2016}}, ''[[Hyalosphenia]]'' {{small|Stein 1859}}, ''[[Longinebela]]'' {{small|Kosakyan et al. 2016}}, ''[[Mrabella]]'' {{small|Kosakyan et al. 2016}}, ''[[Nebela]]'' {{small|Leidy 1874}}, ''[[Padaungiella]]'' {{small|Lara et Todorov 2012}}, ''[[Planocarina]]'' {{small|Kosakyan et al. 2016}}, ''[[Porosia]]'' {{small|Jung 1942}}, ''[[Quadrulella]]'' {{small|Cockerell 1909}}
***** Family [[Trigonopyxidae]]
********Infraorder [[Excentrosoma]] {{small|Lahr et al. 2019}}
**** Suborder [[Phryganellina]]
*********Family [[Centropyxidae]] {{small|Jung 1942}} (incl. [[Plagiopyxidae]]) – ''[[Awerinzewia]]'' {{small|Schouteden 1906}}, ''[[Bullinularia]]'' {{small|Deflandre 1953}}, ''[[Centropyxis]]'' {{small|Stein 1859}}, ''[[Golemanskia]]'' {{small|González-Miguéns, Todorov, Blandenier, Porfirio-Sousa, Ribeiro, Ramos, Lahr & Lara 2022}} (1)<ref name="Arcellinida2022"/>, ''[[Plagiopyxis]]'' {{small|Penard 1910}}
***** Family [[Cryptodifflugiidae]]
********Infraorder [[Cylindrothecina]] {{small|González-Miguéns, Todorov, Blandenier, Porfirio-Sousa, Ribeiro, Ramos, Lahr & Lara 2022}}<ref name="Arcellinida2022">{{cite journal|first1=Rubén |last1=González-Miguéns|first2=Milcho |last2=Todorov|first3=Quentin |last3=Blandenier|first4=Clément |last4=Duckert|first5=Alfredo L. |last5=Porfirio-Sousa|first6=Giulia M. |last6=Ribeiro|first7=Diana |last7=Ramos|first8=Daniel J.G.|last8=Lahr|first9=David|last9=Buckley|first10=Enrique|last10=Lara|title=Deconstructing Difflugia: The tangled evolution of lobose testate amoebae shells (Amoebozoa: Arcellinida) illustrates the importance of convergent evolution in protist phylogeny|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|volume=175|date=2022|pages=107557|issn=1055-7903|doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2022.107557|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1055790322001701|doi-access=free}}</ref>
***** Family [[Phryganellidae]]
*********Family [[Cylindrifflugiidae]] {{small|González-Miguéns, Todorov, Blandenier, Porfirio-Sousa, Ribeiro, Ramos, Lahr & Lara 2022}} – ''[[Cylindrifflugia]]'' {{small|González-Miguéns, Todorov, Blandenier, Porfirio-Sousa, Ribeiro, Ramos, Lahr & Lara 2022}} (5)<ref name="Arcellinida2022"/>
*** Order [[Leptomyxida]]
********Infraorder [[Longithecina]] {{small|Lahr et al. 2019}}
**** Family [[Flabellulidae]]
*********Family [[Difflugiidae]] {{small|Wallich 1864}} – ''[[Difflugia]]'' {{small|Leclerc 1815}}, ''[[Zivkovicia]]'' {{small|Ogden 1983}}, ?''[[Prantlitina]]'' {{small|Vašíček & Růžička 1957}} (4)<ref name="FossilRecord2">{{cite book|title=The Fossil Record|volume=2|vauthors=Hart MB, Williams CL|editor-first1=M. J.|editor-last1=Benton|isbn=0 412 39380 8|date=1993|publisher=Chapman & Hall, London}}</ref>
**** Family [[Leptomyxidae]]
*********Family [[Lesquereusiidae]] {{small|Jung 1942}} – ''[[Lesquereusia]]'' {{small|Schlumberger 1845}}
*** Order [[Tubulinida]]
********Infraorder [[Sphaerothecina]] {{small|Kosakyan et al. 2016}}
**** Family [[Amoebidae]]
*********Family [[Arcellidae]] {{small|Ehrenberg 1843}} – ''[[Arcella]]'' {{small|Ehrenberg 1830}}, ''[[Galeripora]]'' {{small|González-Miguéns et al. 2021}}
**** Family [[Hartmannellidae]]
*********Family [[Netzeliidae]] {{small|Kosakyan et al. 2016}} – ''[[Cucurbitella]]'' {{small|Penard 1902}}, ''[[Cyclopyxis]]'' {{small|Deflandre 1929}}, ''[[Netzelia]]'' {{small|Ogden 1979}}
* Subphylum [[Protamoebae]]
******* [[incertae sedis|INCERTAE SEDIS]] [[Arcellinida]]: ''[[Acipyxis]]'' {{small|Jung 1942}}, ''[[Apolimia]]'' {{small|Korganova 1987}}, ''[[Argynnia]]'' {{small|Vucetich 1974}}, ''[[Armipyxis]]'' {{small|Dekhtjar 2009}}, ''[[Conicocassis]]'' {{small|Nasser & Patterson 2015}}, ''[[Cornuapyxis]]'' {{small|Coûteaux & Chardez 1981}}, ''[[Ellipsopyxella]]'' {{small|Bonnet 1975}}, ''[[Ellipsopyxis]]'' {{small|Bonnet 1965}}, ''[[Erugomicula]]'' {{small|Nasser et al. 2021}}, ''[[Frenopyxis]]'' {{small|Bobrov & Mazei 2020}}, ''[[Geamphorella]]'' {{small|Bonnet 1959}}, ''[[Geoplagiopyxis]]'' {{small|Chardez 1960}}, ''[[Geopyxella]]'' {{small|Bonnet & Thomas 1955}}, ''[[Hoogenraadia]]'' {{small|Gauthier-Liévre & Thomas 1958}}, ''[[Jungia]]'' {{small|Loeblich and Tappan 1961}}, ''[[Lagenodifflugia]]'' {{small|Medioli & Scott, 1983}}, ''[[Lamptopyxis]]'' {{small|Bonnet 1974}}, ''[[Lamptoquadrula]]'' {{small|Bonnet 1975}}, ''[[Leptochlamys]]'' {{small|West 1901}}, ''[[Maghrebia]]'' {{small|Gauthier-Liévre & Thomas 1958}}, ''[[Meisterfeldia]]'' {{small|Bobrov 2016}}, ''[[Microquadrula]]'' {{small|Golemansky 1968}}, ''[[Nabranella]]'' {{small|Snegovaya & Alekperov 2009}}, ''[[Oopyxis]]'' {{small|Jung 1942}}, ''[[Paracentropyxis]]'' {{small|Bonnet 1960}}, ''[[Paraquadrula]]'' {{small|Deflandre 1932}}, ''[[Pentagonia]]'' {{small|Gauthier-Liévre & Thomas 1958}}, ''[[Physochila]]'' {{small|Jung 1942}}, ''[[Planhoogenraadia]]'' {{small|Bonnet 1977}}, ''[[Pomoriella]]'' {{small|Golemansky 1970}}, ''[[Pontigulasia]]'' {{small|Rhumbler 1895}}, ''[[Proplagiopyxis]]'' {{small|Schönborn 1964}}, ''[[Protoplagiopyxis]]'' {{small|Bonnet 1962}}, ''[[Protocucurbitella]]'' {{small|Gauthier-Liévre & Thomas 1960}}, ''[[Pseudawerintzewia]]'' {{small|Bonnet 1959}}, ''[[Pseudonebela]]'' {{small|Gauthier-Liévre & Thomas 1960}}, ''[[Schoenbornia]]'' {{small|Decloître 1964}}, ''[[Sexangularia]]'' {{small|Awerintzew 1906}}, ''[[Suiadifflugia]]'' {{small|Green 1975}}, ''[[Trigonopyxis]]'' {{small|Penard 1912}}, ''[[Wailesella]]'' {{small|Deflandre 1928}}
** Class [[Breviatea]]
****** '''Order [[Euamoebida]]''' {{small|Lepşi 1960 em. Cavalier-Smith 2016}}<ref name="187"/>
*** Order [[Breviatida]]
*******Suborder [[Amoebina]] {{small|Cavalier-Smith 2016}}<ref name="187"/>
** Class [[Variosea]]
********Family [[Amoebidae]] {{small|(Ehrenberg 1838) Page 1987}} – ''[[Amoeba]]'', ''[[Chaos]]'', ''[[Polychaos]]'', ''[[Parachaos]]'', ''[[Trichamoeba]]'', ''[[Deuteramoeba]]'', ''[[Hydramoeba]]''
*** Order [[Centramoebida]]
********Family [[Hartmannellidae]] {{small|Volkonsky 1931 em. Smirnov et al. 2011}} – ''[[Cashia]]'', ''[[Copromyxa]]'', ''[[Copromyxella]]'', ''[[Glaeseria]]'', ''[[Hartmannella]]'', ''[[Ptolemeba]]'', ''[[Saccamoeba]]''
**** Family [[Acanthamoebidae]]
*******Suborder [[Nolandina]] {{small|Cavalier-Smith 2016}}<ref name="187"/>
**** Family [[Balamuthiidae]]
********Family [[Nolandellidae]] {{small|Cavalier-Smith in Smirnov et al. 2011, also Lahr & Katz in Lahr et al. 2011}} – ''[[Nolandella]]''
*** Order [[Phalansteriida]]
**'''Superclass [[Cutosa]]''' {{small|Cavalier-Smith 2016}}<ref name="187"/>
**** Family [[Phalansteriidae]]
***'''Class [[Cutosea]]''' {{small|Cavalier-Smith 2016}}
*** Order [[Varipodida]]
****'''Order [[Squamocutida]]''' {{small|Cavalier-Smith 2016}}
**** Family [[Gephyramoebidae]]
*****Family [[Squamamoebidae]] {{small|Cavalier-Smith 2016}} – ''[[Squamamoeba]]''
**** Family [[Filamoebidae]]
*****Family [[Sapocribridae]] {{small|Cavalier-Smith 2016}} – ''[[Sapocribrum]]''
*'''Subphylum [[Conosa]]''' {{small|Cavalier-Smith 1998}}
**'''Infraphylum [[Archamoebae]]''' {{small|Cavalier-Smith 1993 stat. nov. 1998}}
***'''Class [[Archamoebea]]''' {{small|Cavalier-Smith 1983 stat. nov. 2004}}
****'''Order [[Entamoebida]]''' {{small|Cavalier-Smith 1993}}
*****Family [[Entamoebidae]] {{small|Chatton 1925}} – ''[[Entamoeba]]''
****'''Order [[Pelobiontida]]''' {{small|Page 1976}}
*****Suborder [[Mastigamoebina]] {{small|Frenzel 1897 stat. nov. 2016}}
******Family [[Mastigamoebidae]] {{small|Goldschmidt 1907}} – ''[[Endolymax]]'', ''[[Iodamoeba]]'', ''[[Mastigamoeba]]''
******Family [[Rhizomastixidae]] {{small|Ptáčková et al. 2013}} – ''[[Rhizomastix]]''
*****Suborder [[Pelomyxina]] {{small|Starobogatov, 1980 stat. nov. 2016}}
******Family [[Pelomyxidae]] {{small|Schulze 1877}} – ''[[Mastigella]]'', ''[[Pelomyxa]]''
*** [[incertae sedis|INCERTAE SEDIS]] [[Archamoebae]]: ''[[Endamoeba]]'', ''[[Mastigina]]'', ''[[Tricholimax]]''
**'''Infraphylum [[Semiconosia]]''' {{small|Cavalier-Smith 2013}}
***'''Superclass [[Variosia]]''' {{small|Cavalier-Smith 2016}}<ref name="187"/>
****'''Class [[Variosea]]''' {{small|Cavalier-Smith 2004 em. 2016}}
*****'''Order [[Holomastigida]]''' {{small|Lauterborn 1895}}
******Family [[Multiciliidae]] {{small|Poche 1913}} – ''[[Multicilia]]''
*****'''Order [[Phalansteriida]]''' {{small|Hibberd, 1983 em. 2016}}
******Family [[Phalansteriidae]] {{small|Saville Kent 1880–1881}} – ''[[Phalansterium]]''
******Family [[Dictyamoebidae]] {{small|Cavalier-Smith 2016}} – ''[[Dictyamoeba]]''
******Family [[Arboramoebidae]] {{small|Cavalier-Smith 2016}} – ''[[Arboramoeba]]''
******Family [[Schizoplasmodiidae]] {{small|Cavalier-Smith, 2013}} – ''[[Schizoplasmodium]]'', ''[[Nematostelium]]'', ''[[Ceratiomyxella]]''
******Family [[Rhizomonadidae]] {{small|Cavalier-Smith in Cavalier-Smith and Scoble, 2013}} – ''[[Rhizomonas]]''
******Family [[Rigidomastigidae]] {{small|Cavalier-Smith in Cavalier-Smith and Scoble, 2013}} – ''[[Rigidimastix]]''
******Family [[Trichonemidae]] {{small|Cavalier-Smith 2016}} – ''[[Trichonemum]]'', ''[[Mitophora]]''
*****'''Order [[Artodiscida]]''' {{small|Cavalier-Smith 2013}}
******Family [[Artodiscidae]] {{small|Cavalier-Smith 2013}} – ''[[Artodiscus]]'', ''[[Tetracilia]]''
*****'''Order [[Varipodida]]''' {{small|Cavalier-Smith in Cavalier-Smith et al., 2004}}
******Family [[Filamoebidae]] {{small|Cavalier-Smith in Cavalier-Smith et al. 2004}} – ''[[Filamoeba]]'', ''[[Heliamoeba]]''
******Family [[Flamellidae]] {{small|Cavalier-Smith 2016}} – ''[[Flamella]]'', ''[[Telaepolella]]''
*****'''Order [[Protostelida]]''' {{small|Olive 1967 ex Olive & Stoianovitch 1966 em. Cavalier-Smith 2016}}
******Family [[Protosteliidae]] {{small|Olive, 1962 em. Cavalier-Smith 2016}} – ''[[Protostelium]]'', ''[[Planoprotostelium]]''
******Family [[Soliformovidae]] {{small|Cavalier-Smith, 2013 em. 2016}} – ''[[Soliformovum]]'', ''[[Grellamoeba]]''
***'''Superclass [[Mycetozoa]]''' {{small|de Bary 1859 ex Rostafinski 1873}} = '''[[Eumycetozoa]]''' {{small|Zopf 1884 sensu Kang et al. 2017}}
****'''Class [[Dictyostelea]]''' {{small|Lister 1909 emend. Olive 1970}} = '''[[Dictyosteliomycetes]]''' {{small|Doweld 2001}} – ''[[Acytostelium]]'', ''[[Cavenderia]]'', ''[[Coremiostelium]]'', ''[[Dictyostelium]]'', ''[[Heterostelium]]'', ''[[Polysphondylium]]'', ''[[Raperostelium]]'', ''[[Rostrostelium]]'', ''[[Speleostelium]]'', ''[[Tieghemostelium]]'', ''[[Synstelium]]'', ?''[[Coenonia]]''
****'''Class [[Ceratiomyxea]]''' {{small|Leontyev, Stephenson, Novozhilov & Shchepin 2019}}<ref name="Myxomycetes"/> = '''[[Ceratiomyxomycetes]]''' {{small|D. Hawksw., B. Sutton & Ainsw. 2019}} = '''[[Protosporangiida]]''' {{small|Shadwick & Spiegel in Adl et al. 2012}} – ''[[Ceratiomyxa]]'' {{small|J. Schröt. 1889}}, ''[[Clastostelium]]'' {{small|L.S. Olive & Stoian. 1977}}, ''[[Protosporangium]]'' {{small|L.S. Olive & Stoian. 1972}}
****'''Class [[Myxogastrea]]''' {{small|Cavalier-Smith 1993}} = '''[[Myxomycetes]]''' {{small|Link 1833}}
*****'''Subclass [[Lucisporomycetidae]]''' = '''[[Lucisporinia]]''' {{small|Leontyev, Stephenson, Novozhilov & Shchepin 2019}}<ref name="Myxomycetes"/>
******'''Superorder [[Cribariidia]]''' {{small|Leontyev, Stephenson, Novozhilov & Shchepin 2019}}<ref name="Myxomycetes"/>
*******'''Order [[Cribariales]]''' {{small|T. Macbr. 1922}}
********Family [[Cribariaceae]] {{small|Corda 1838}} – ''[[Cribaria]]'' {{small|Pers. 1794}}, ''[[Lindbladia]]'' {{small|Fr. 1849}}, ''[[Licaethalium]]'' {{small|Rostaf. 1873}}
******'''Superorder [[Trichiidia]]''' {{small|Leontyev, Stephenson, Novozhilov & Shchepin 2019}}<ref name="Myxomycetes"/>
*******'''Order [[Reticulariales]]''' {{small|Leontyev, Stephenson, Novozhilov & Shchepin 2019}}<ref name="Myxomycetes"/>
********Family [[Reticulariaceae]] {{small|Chevall. 1842}} – ''[[Alwisia]]'' {{small|Berk. & Broome 1873}}, ''[[Lycogala]]'' {{small|Adans. 1763}}, ''[[Reticularia]]'' {{small|Bull. 1787-88}}, ''[[Tubifera]]'' {{small|J.F. Gmel. 1792}}
*******'''Order [[Liceales]]''' {{small|E. Jahn 1928}}
********Family [[Liceaceae]] {{small|Chevall. 1826}} – ''[[Licea]]'' {{small|Schrad. 1797}}, ''[[Listerella]]'' {{small|E. Jahn 1907}}
*******'''Order [[Trichiales]]''' {{small|T. Macbr. 1922}}
********Family [[Dianemataceae]] {{small|T. Macbr. 1922}} – ''[[Calomyxa]]'' {{small|Nieuwl. 1916}}, ''[[Dianema]]'' {{small|Rex 1891}}, ''[[Dictydiaethalium]]'' {{small|Rostaf. 1873}}, ''[[Prototrichia]]'' {{small|Rostaf. 1876}}
********Family [[Trichiaceae]] {{small|Chevall. 1826 sensu Martin & Alexopoulos 1969}} – ''[[Hemitrichia]]'' {{small|Rostaf. 1873}} (incl. ''[[Trichia decipiens]]''), ''[[Arcyria]]'' {{small|F.H. Wigg. 1780}} (incl. ''[[Arcyodes]]'' {{small|O.F. Cook}}), ''[[Perichaena]]'' {{small|Fr. 1817}}, ''[[Trichia]]'' {{small|Haller 1768}} (incl. ''[[Cornuvia]]'' {{small|Rostaf.}}, ''[[Metatrichia]]'' {{small|Ing}}, ''[[Oligonema]]'' {{small|Rostaf.}})
******[[incertae sedis|INCERTAE SEDIS]] [[Lucisporomycetidae]]: ''[[Arcyriatella]]'' {{small|Hochg. & Gottsb. 1989}}, ''[[Calonema]]'' {{small|Morgan 1893}}, ''[[Minakatella]]'' {{small|G. Lister 1921}}, ''[[Trichioides]]'' {{small|Novozh., Hoof & Jagers 2015}}
*****'''Subclass [[Columellomycetidae]]''' = '''[[Collumellinia]]''' {{small|Leontyev, Stephenson, Novozhilov & Shchepin 2019}}<ref name="Myxomycetes"/>
******'''Superorder [[Echinosteliidia]]''' {{small|Leontyev, Stephenson, Novozhilov & Shchepin 2019}}<ref name="Myxomycetes"/>
*******'''Order [[Echinosteliales]]''' {{small|G. W. Martin 1961}}
********Family [[Echinosteliaceae]] {{small|Rostaf. ex Cooke 1877}} – ''[[Barbeyella]]'' {{small|Meyl. 1914}}, ''[[Echinostelium]]'' {{small|de Bary 1873}} (incl. ''[[Semimorula]]'' {{small|E.F. Haskins, McGuinn & C.S. Berry 1983}})
******'''Superorder [[Stemonitidia]]''' {{small|Leontyev, Stephenson, Novozhilov & Shchepin 2019}}<ref name="Myxomycetes"/>
*******'''Order [[Clastodermatales]]''' {{small|Leontyev, Stephenson, Novozhilov & Shchepin 2019}}<ref name="Myxomycetes"/>
********Family [[Clastodermataceae]] {{small|Alexop. & T.E. Brooks 1971}} – ''[[Clastoderma]]'' {{small|A. Blytt. 1880}}
*******'''Order [[Meridermatales]]''' {{small|Leontyev, Stephenson, Novozhilov & Shchepin 2019}}<ref name="Myxomycetes"/>
********Family [[Meridermataceae]] {{small|Leontyev, Stephenson, Novozhilov & Shchepin 2019}} – ''[[Meriderma]]'' {{small|Mar. Mey. & Poulain 2011}}
*******'''Order [[Stemonitidales]]''' {{small|T. Macbr. 1922 em. Leontyev, Stephenson, Novozhilov & Shchepin 2019}}
********Family [[Stemonitidaceae]] {{small|Fr. 1829 em. Leontyev, Stephenson, Novozhilov & Shchepin 2019}} – ''[[Macbrideola]]'' {{small|H.C. Gilbert 1934}}, ''[[Stemonitis]]'' {{small|Gled. 1753}}, ''[[Symphytocarpus]]'' {{small|Ing & Nann.-Bremek. 1967}}
********Family [[Amaurochaetaceae]] {{small|Rostaf. ex Cooke 1877 em. Leontyev, Stephenson, Novozhilov & Shchepin 2019}} – ''[[Comatricha]]'' {{small|Preuss. 1851}}, ''[[Stemonaria]]'' {{small|Nann.-Bremek., R. Sharma & Y. Yamam. 1984}}, ''[[Stemonitopsis]]'' {{small|Nann.-Bremek. 1975}}, ''[[Amaurochaete]]'' {{small|Rostaf. 1877}}, ''[[Brefeldia]]'' {{small|Rostaf. 1877}}, ''[[Enerthenema]]'' {{small|Bowman}}, ''[[Paradiacheopsis]]'' {{small|Hertel.}}
*******'''Order [[Physarales]]''' {{small|T. Macbr. 1922}}
********Family [[Lamprodermataceae]] {{small|T. Macbr. 1899 em. Leontyev, Stephenson, Novozhilov & Shchepin 2019}} — ''[[Lamproderma]]'' (incl. ''[[Dichaeopsis]]'', ''[[Colloderma]]'', ''[[Elaeomyxa]]''), ?''[[Collaria]]''
********Family [[Didymiaceae]] {{small|Rostaf. ex Cooke 1877}} – ''[[Diderma]]'', ''[[Didymium]]'', ''[[Lepidoderma]]'', ''[[Mucilago]]''
********Family [[Physaraceae]] {{small|Chevall. 1826}} – ''[[Craterium]]'', ''[[Leocarpus]]'', ''[[Fuligo]]'', ''[[Physarum]]'', ''[[Physarella]]'', ''[[Physarina]]'', ''[[Kelleromyxa]]'', ''[[Badhamia]]''
******[[incertae sedis|INCERTAE SEDIS]] [[Columellomycetidae]]: ''[[Diachea]]'', ''[[Echinosteliopsis]]'', ''[[Leptoderma]]'', ''[[Paradiachea]]'', ''[[Protophysarum]]'', ''[[Trabrooksia]]'', ''[[Willkommlangea]]''
* [[incertae sedis|INCERTAE SEDIS]] [[Amoebozoa]]: Family [[Stereomyxidae]] {{small|Grell 1966}} – ''[[Steremoyxa]]'', ''[[Corallomyxa]]''
==Clade [[Opisthokonta]] <small>Cavalier-Smith 1981</small>==
==Clade [[Opisthokonta]] <small>Cavalier-Smith 1981</small>==
; [[Holozoa]]
; [[Holozoa]]
Line 125: Line 194:
** [[Opisthosporidia]]
** [[Opisthosporidia]]
** Kingdom '''[[List of fungal orders|Fungi]]'''
** Kingdom '''[[List of fungal orders|Fungi]]'''

=[[Bikonta]] (Biciliata) <small>Cavalier-Smith, 2002</small>=
=[[Bikonta]] (Biciliata) <small>Cavalier-Smith, 2002</small>=
==Kingdom [[Archaeplastida]] (Primoplantae) <small>Sina Adl, 2005</small> ==
==Kingdom [[Archaeplastida]] (Primoplantae) <small>Sina Adl, 2005</small> ==

Revision as of 12:23, 9 August 2022

A protist (/ˈproʊtɪst/) is any eukaryotic organism (one with cells containing a nucleus) that is not an animal, plant, or fungus. The protists do not form a natural group, or clade, since they exclude certain eukaryotes with whom they share a common ancestor;[a] but, like algae or invertebrates, the grouping is used for convenience. In some systems of biological classification, such as the popular five-kingdom scheme proposed by Robert Whittaker in 1969, the protists make up a kingdom called Protista, composed of "organisms which are unicellular or unicellular-colonial and which form no tissues".[1][2][b]

The following groups contain protists. The clade Opisthokonta also contains the animals and the fungi, and the kingdom Archaeplastida also contains algae and plants.

Since not all taxa are monophyletic, those which are paraphyletic are written between brackets.

Kingdom "Protozoa" Godfuss 1817

The "Protozoa" are a paraphyletic assemblage of several groups of heterotrophic microorganisms. They are divided into two main groups: "Sarcomastigota", which contains the protist phyla more closely related to fungi and animals (Amoebozoa, "Choanozoa", Microsporidia, "Sulcozoa"); and "Eozoa", which contains the excavates (Euglenozoa, Percolozoa, "Loukozoa", Metamonada).[3]

Phylum Amoebozoa Lühe 1913 em. Cavalier-Smith 1998

The current classification of Amoebozoa isn't entirely phylogenetic at the high-level taxa: subphylum "Lobosa" is a paraphyletic group ("Glycopoda" and Cutosa) as opposed to the monophyletic subphylum Conosa, and inside "Lobosa" itself the superclass "Glycopoda" is also a paraphyletic grouping (Discosea and Tubulinea) as opposed to the monophyletic superclass Cutosa. Phylogenetic trees show that Discosea is sister to Tevosa (Tubulinea + Evosea), and Tubulinea is sister to Evosea (Cutosa + Conosa)[4] as shown below:

Amoebozoa

Clade Opisthokonta Cavalier-Smith 1981

Holozoa
Holomycota

Bikonta (Biciliata) Cavalier-Smith, 2002

Kingdom Archaeplastida (Primoplantae) Sina Adl, 2005

Division Glaucophyta Heinrich L. Skuja, 1954
Division Rhodophyta Wettstein, 1922
Subkingdom Plant

Kingdom Chromista Cavalier-Smith, 1981

Subkingdom SAR Cavalier-Smith, 2010

Infrakingdom Rhizaria Cavalier-Smith, 2002

Phylum Cercozoa Cavalier-Smith, 1998
Phylum Retaria Cavalier-Smith, 2002

Clade Halvaria

Infrakingdom Heterokontophyta (Heterokonta) Cavalier-Smith, 1986
Infrakingdom Alveolata Cavalier-Smith, 1991

Phlyum Ciliophora Doflein, 1901

Phylum Myzozoa T. Cavalier-Smith & E.E. Chao, 2004

Division Haptophyta (Prymnesiophyta) Hibberd & Cavalier-Smith, 1986

Division Cryptophyta Pascher, 1914

Excavata (Cavalier-Smith) Simpson, 2003

Eozoa Cavalier-Smith, 2003

Phylum Loukozoa Cavalier-Smith, 1999

Phylum Metamonada Grassé 1952

Discicristata Cavalier-Smith, 2003

Phylum Percolozoa Cavalier-Smith 1991

Phylum Euglenozoa (Euglenophyta) Cavalier-Smith, 1981[13]

Protista incertae sedis

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The first eukaryotes were “neither plants, animals, nor fungi”, hence as defined, the Protista would include the earliest common ancestor of all eukaryotes.
  2. ^ In the original 4-kingdom model proposed in 1959, Protista included all unicellular microorganisms such as bacteria.

References

  1. ^ Whittaker RH (January 1969). "New concepts of kingdoms or organisms. Evolutionary relations are better represented by new classifications than by the traditional two kingdoms". Science. 163 (3863): 150–160. Bibcode:1969Sci...163..150W. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.403.5430. doi:10.1126/science.163.3863.150. PMID 5762760.
  2. ^ "whittaker new concepts of kingdoms – Google Scholar". scholar.google.ca. Retrieved 2016-02-28.
  3. ^ Ruggiero MA, Gordon DP, Orrell TM, Bailly N, Bourgoin T, Brusca RC, Cavalier-Smith T, Guiry MD, Kirk PM (2015). "A Higher Level Classification of All Living Organisms". PLOS ONE. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0119248. {{cite journal}}: line feed character in |title= at position 44 (help)CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  4. ^ a b c Kang, Seungho; Tice, Alexander K; Spiegel, Frederick W; Silberman, Jeffrey D; Pánek, Tomáš; Čepička, Ivan; Kostka, Martin; Kosakyan, Anush; Alcântara, Daniel M C; Roger, Andrew J; Shadwick, Lora L; Smirnov, Alexey; Kudryavtsev, Alexander; Lahr, Daniel J G; Brown, Matthew W (September 2017). "Between a Pod and a Hard Test: The Deep Evolution of Amoebae". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 34 (9): 2258–2270. doi:10.1093/molbev/msx162. PMC 5850466. PMID 28505375.
  5. ^ Tice AK, Shadwick LL, Fiore-Donno AM, et al. (2016). "Expansion of the molecular and morphological diversity of Acanthamoebidae (Centramoebida, Amoebozoa) and identification of a novel life cycle type within the group". Biol Direct. 11: 69. doi:10.1186/s13062-016-0171-0.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  6. ^ a b c d Smirnov, Alexey; Nassonova, Elena; Geisen, Stefan; Bonkowski, Michael; Kudryavtsev, Alexander; Berney, Cedric; Glotova, Anna; Bondarenko, Natalya; Dyková, Iva; Mrva, Martin; Fahrni, Jose; Pawlowski, Jan (2017). "Phylogeny and Systematics of Leptomyxid Amoebae (Amoebozoa, Tubulinea, Leptomyxida)". Protist. 168 (2): 220–252. doi:10.1016/j.protis.2016.10.006. ISSN 1434-4610.
  7. ^ Del Valle, Alvaro De Obeso Fernandez; Lorenzo-Morales, Jacob; Maciver, Sutherland K. (2017). "Leptomyxa valladaresi n. sp. (Amoebozoa, Tubulinea, Leptomyxida), from Mount Teide, Tenerife, Spain". Experimental Parasitology. 183: 85–91. doi:10.1016/j.exppara.2017.09.017. ISSN 0014-4894.
  8. ^ Smirnov, Alexey (2018). "Fine structure of Leptomyxa ambigua n. sp. CCAP 1546/2 strain, formerly known as "Rhizamoeba flabellata" (Amoebozoa, Tubulinea, Leptomyxida)". European Journal of Protistology. 62: 95–100. doi:10.1016/j.ejop.2017.12.001. ISSN 0932-4739.
  9. ^ Bobrov, Anatoly; Mazei, Yuri (2017). "A review of testate amoeba genus Cryptodifflugia Penard, 1890 (Phryganellina: Cryptodifflugiidae) with a key to species". Zootaxa. 4282 (2): 292–308. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.4282.2.4.
  10. ^ a b c González-Miguéns, Rubén; Todorov, Milcho; Blandenier, Quentin; Duckert, Clément; Porfirio-Sousa, Alfredo L.; Ribeiro, Giulia M.; Ramos, Diana; Lahr, Daniel J.G.; Buckley, David; Lara, Enrique (2022). "Deconstructing Difflugia: The tangled evolution of lobose testate amoebae shells (Amoebozoa: Arcellinida) illustrates the importance of convergent evolution in protist phylogeny". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 175: 107557. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2022.107557. ISSN 1055-7903.
  11. ^ Hart MB, Williams CL (1993). Benton MJ (ed.). The Fossil Record. Vol. 2. Chapman & Hall, London. ISBN 0 412 39380 8.
  12. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Cite error: The named reference Myxomycetes was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  13. ^ T. Cavalier-Smith (1981). "Eukaryote kingdoms: seven or nine". BioSystems. 14 (3–4): 461–481. doi:10.1016/0303-2647(81)90050-2. PMID 7337818.
  14. ^ Hausmann K, Weitere M, Wolf M, Arndt H (2002). "Meteora sporadica gen. nov. et sp. nov. (Protista incertae sedis) – an extraordinary free-living protist from the Mediterranean deep sea". Europ. J. Protistol. 38: 171–177. doi:10.1078/0932-4739-00872.
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