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'''''Corynebacterium diphtheriae'''''{{efn|Pronunciation: {{IPAc-en|k|ɔː|ˈ|r|aɪ|n|ə|b|æ|k|t|ɪər|i|ə|m|_|d|ɪ|f|ˈ|θ|ɪər|i|i|,_|-|r|ɪ|n|ə|-}}.}} is the [[pathogenic bacterium]] that causes [[diphtheria]].<ref name="Hoskisson 2018">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hoskisson PA | title = Microbe Profile: Corynebacterium diphtheriae - an old foe always ready to seize opportunity | journal = Microbiology | volume = 164 | issue = 6 | pages = 865–867 | date = June 2018 | pmid = 29465341 | pmc = 6097034 | doi = 10.1099/mic.0.000627 }}</ref> It is also known as the '''Klebs–Löffler bacillus''', because it was discovered in 1884 by German [[bacteriologist]]s [[Edwin Klebs]] (1834&ndash;1912) and [[Friedrich Löffler]] (1852&ndash;1915).<ref name="pmid4322195">{{cite journal | vauthors = Barksdale L | title = Corynebacterium diphtheriae and its relatives | journal = Bacteriological Reviews | volume = 34 | issue = 4 | pages = 378–422 | date = December 1970 | pmid = 4322195 | pmc = 378364 | doi = 10.1128/br.34.4.378-422.1970 }}</ref> The bacteria are usually harmless unless they are infected by a [[bacteriophage]] that carries a [[gene]] that gives rise to a [[microbial toxin|toxin]].<ref name="pmid35328715">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ott L, Möller J, Burkovski A | title = Interactions between the Re-Emerging Pathogen ''Corynebacterium diphtheriae'' and Host Cells | journal = International Journal of Molecular Sciences | volume = 23 | issue = 6 | page = 3298 | date = March 2022 | pmid = 35328715 | pmc = 8952647 | doi = 10.3390/ijms23063298 | doi-access = free }}</ref> This toxin causes the disease.<ref name="pmid32003344">{{cite journal | vauthors = Muthuirulandi Sethuvel DP, Subramanian N, Pragasam AK, Inbanathan FY, Gupta P, Johnson J, Sharma NC, Hemvani N, Veeraraghavan B, Anandan S, Sangal L | display-authors = 6 | title = Insights to the diphtheria toxin encoding prophages amongst clinical isolates of ''Corynebacterium diphtheriae'' from India | journal = Indian Journal of Medical Microbiology | volume = 37 | issue = 3 | pages = 423–425 | date = 2019 | pmid = 32003344 | doi = 10.4103/ijmm.IJMM_19_469 }}</ref> Diphtheria is caused by the adhesion and infiltration of the bacteria into the mucosal layers of the body, primarily affecting the respiratory tract and the subsequent release of an endotoxin.<ref name=":0" /> The toxin has a localized effect on skin lesions, as well as a metastatic, proteolytic effects on other organ systems in severe infections.<ref name=":0" /> Originally a major cause of childhood mortality, diphtheria has been almost entirely eradicated from the United States due to the vigorous administration of the diphtheria vaccination in the 1910s.<ref>{{Citation |title=Diphtheria Toxoid/Tetanus Toxoid/Acellular Pertussis Vaccine Adsorbed |date=2020-02-07 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.32388/6r0a5u |work=Definitions |publisher=Qeios |doi=10.32388/6r0a5u |s2cid=243106386 |access-date=2022-11-17}}</ref>
'''''Corynebacterium diphtheriae'''''{{efn|Pronunciation: {{IPAc-en|k|ɔː|ˈ|r|aɪ|n|ə|b|æ|k|t|ɪər|i|ə|m|_|d|ɪ|f|ˈ|θ|ɪər|i|i|,_|-|r|ɪ|n|ə|-}}.}} is the [[pathogenic bacterium]] that causes [[diphtheria]].<ref name="Hoskisson 2018">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hoskisson PA | title = Microbe Profile: Corynebacterium diphtheriae - an old foe always ready to seize opportunity | journal = Microbiology | volume = 164 | issue = 6 | pages = 865–867 | date = June 2018 | pmid = 29465341 | pmc = 6097034 | doi = 10.1099/mic.0.000627 }}</ref> It is also known as the '''Klebs–Löffler bacillus''', because it was discovered in 1884 by German [[bacteriologist]]s [[Edwin Klebs]] (1834&ndash;1912) and [[Friedrich Löffler]] (1852&ndash;1915).<ref name="pmid4322195">{{cite journal | vauthors = Barksdale L | title = Corynebacterium diphtheriae and its relatives | journal = Bacteriological Reviews | volume = 34 | issue = 4 | pages = 378–422 | date = December 1970 | pmid = 4322195 | pmc = 378364 | doi = 10.1128/br.34.4.378-422.1970 }}</ref> The bacteria are usually harmless unless they are infected by a [[bacteriophage]] that carries a [[gene]] that gives rise to a [[microbial toxin|toxin]].<ref name="pmid35328715">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ott L, Möller J, Burkovski A | title = Interactions between the Re-Emerging Pathogen ''Corynebacterium diphtheriae'' and Host Cells | journal = International Journal of Molecular Sciences | volume = 23 | issue = 6 | page = 3298 | date = March 2022 | pmid = 35328715 | pmc = 8952647 | doi = 10.3390/ijms23063298 | doi-access = free }}</ref> This toxin causes the disease.<ref name="pmid32003344">{{cite journal | vauthors = Muthuirulandi Sethuvel DP, Subramanian N, Pragasam AK, Inbanathan FY, Gupta P, Johnson J, Sharma NC, Hemvani N, Veeraraghavan B, Anandan S, Sangal L | display-authors = 6 | title = Insights to the diphtheria toxin encoding prophages amongst clinical isolates of ''Corynebacterium diphtheriae'' from India | journal = Indian Journal of Medical Microbiology | volume = 37 | issue = 3 | pages = 423–425 | date = 2019 | pmid = 32003344 | doi = 10.4103/ijmm.IJMM_19_469 }}</ref> Diphtheria is caused by the adhesion and infiltration of the bacteria into the mucosal layers of the body, primarily affecting the respiratory tract and the subsequent release of an endotoxin.<ref name=":0" /> The toxin has a localized effect on skin lesions, as well as a metastatic, proteolytic effects on other organ systems in severe infections.<ref name=":0" /> Originally a major cause of childhood mortality, diphtheria has been almost entirely eradicated from the United States due to the vigorous administration of the diphtheria vaccination in the 1910s.<ref name="pmid31538559">{{cite journal |vauthors=Clarke KEN, MacNeil A, Hadler S, Scott C, Tiwari TSP, Cherian T |title=Global Epidemiology of Diphtheria, 2000-20171 |journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases |volume=25 |issue=10 |pages=1834–1842 |date=October 2019 |pmid=31538559 |pmc=6759252 |doi=10.3201/eid2510.190271}}</ref>


Diphtheria is no longer transmitted as frequently due to the development of the vaccine, DTaP. Although diphtheria outbreaks continue to occur, this often in developing countries where the majority of the population is not vaccinated.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Diphtheria - Symptoms and causes |url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/diphtheria/symptoms-causes/syc-20351897 |access-date=2022-11-17 |website=Mayo Clinic |language=en}}</ref>
Diphtheria is no longer transmitted as frequently due to the development of the vaccine, DTaP. Although diphtheria outbreaks continue to occur, this often in developing countries where the majority of the population is not vaccinated.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Diphtheria - Symptoms and causes |url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/diphtheria/symptoms-causes/syc-20351897 |access-date=2022-11-17 |website=Mayo Clinic |language=en}}</ref>

Revision as of 08:25, 17 November 2022

Corynebacterium diphtheriae
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Bacteria
Phylum: Actinomycetota
Class: Actinomycetia
Order: Mycobacteriales
Family: Corynebacteriaceae
Genus: Corynebacterium
Species:
C. diphtheriae
Binomial name
Corynebacterium diphtheriae
(Kruse 1886) Lehmann and Neumann 1896 (Approved Lists 1980)[1]

Corynebacterium diphtheriae[a] is the pathogenic bacterium that causes diphtheria.[2] It is also known as the Klebs–Löffler bacillus, because it was discovered in 1884 by German bacteriologists Edwin Klebs (1834–1912) and Friedrich Löffler (1852–1915).[3] The bacteria are usually harmless unless they are infected by a bacteriophage that carries a gene that gives rise to a toxin.[4] This toxin causes the disease.[5] Diphtheria is caused by the adhesion and infiltration of the bacteria into the mucosal layers of the body, primarily affecting the respiratory tract and the subsequent release of an endotoxin.[6] The toxin has a localized effect on skin lesions, as well as a metastatic, proteolytic effects on other organ systems in severe infections.[6] Originally a major cause of childhood mortality, diphtheria has been almost entirely eradicated from the United States due to the vigorous administration of the diphtheria vaccination in the 1910s.[7]

Diphtheria is no longer transmitted as frequently due to the development of the vaccine, DTaP. Although diphtheria outbreaks continue to occur, this often in developing countries where the majority of the population is not vaccinated.[8]

Classification

Four subspecies are recognized: C. d. mitis, C. d. intermedius, C. d. gravis, and C. d. belfanti. The four subspecies differ slightly in their colonial morphology and biochemical properties, such as the ability to metabolize certain nutrients, but all may be toxigenic (and therefore cause diphtheria) or not toxigenic. C. diphtheriae produces diphtheria toxin which alters protein function in the host by inactivating the elongation factor EF-2. This causes pharyngitis and 'pseudomembrane' in the throat. The strains which are toxigenic are ones which have been infected with a bacteriophage.[9][10]

The diphtheria toxin gene is encoded by the bacteriophage found in toxigenic strains, integrated into the bacterial chromosome.[11] To accurately identify C. diphtheriae, a Gram stain is performed to show Gram-positive, highly pleomorphic organisms with no particular arrangement. Special stains like Albert's stain and Ponder's stain are used to demonstrate the metachromatic granules formed in the polar regions. The granules are called polar granules, Babes Ernst granules or volutin granules. An enrichment medium, such as Löffler's medium, is used to preferentially grow C. diphtheriae. After that, a differential plate known as tellurite agar, allows all Corynebacteria (including C. diphtheriae) to reduce tellurite to metallic tellurium. The tellurite reduction is colorimetrically indicated by brown colonies for most Cornyebacterium species or by a black halo around the C. diphtheriae colonies.

A low concentration of iron is required in the medium for toxin production. At high iron concentrations, iron molecules bind to an aporepressor on the beta bacteriophage, which carries the Tox gene. When bound to iron, the aporepressor shuts down toxin production.[12] Elek's test for toxigenicity is used to determine whether the organism is able to produce the diphtheria toxin.[13]

Pathogenicity

Main article: Diphtheria
An adherent, dense, grey pseudomembrane covering the tonsils is classically seen in diphtheria.

Corynebacterium diphtheriae is the bacterium that causes the disease called diphtheria. Bacteriophages introduce a gene into the bacterial cells that makes a strain toxigenic. The strains that are not infected with these viruses are harmless.[5] C. diphtheriae is a rod-shaped, Gram-positive, nonspore-forming, and nonmotile bacterium.[14] C. diphtheriae has shown to exclusively infect humans. It is believed that humans may be the reservoir for this pathogen. However, there has been extremely rare cases in which C. diphtheriae has been found in animals. These infections were only toxigenic in 2 dogs and 2 horses.[15]

The disease occurs primarily in tropical regions and underdeveloped countries. Immunocompromised individuals, poorly immunized adults, and unvaccinated children are at the greatest risk for contracting diphtheria. Mode of transmission is person-to-person contact via respiratory droplets (i.e., coughing or sneezing), and less commonly, by touching open sores or contaminated surfaces. During the typical course of disease, the only affected body region is the upper respiratory system. A thick, gray coating accumulates in the nasopharyngeal region, making breathing and swallowing more difficult. The disease remains contagious for at least two weeks following disappearance of symptoms, but has been known to last for up to a month.[16]

The most common routes of entry for C. diphtheriae are the nose, tonsils, and throat. Individuals suffering from the disease may experience sore throat, weakness, fever, and swollen glands. If left untreated, diphtheria toxin may enter the bloodstream, causing damage to the kidneys, nerves, and heart. Extremely rare complications include suffocation and partial paralysis. A vaccine, DTaP, effectively prevents the disease and is mandatory in the United States for participation in public education and some professions (exceptions apply).[6]

The first step of C. diphtheriae infection involves the toxigenic bacteria colonising a mucosal layer. In young children, this typically occurs in the upper respiratory tract mucosa. In adults, faucial diphtheria is more common wherein the primary site of infection is typically the posterior mouth or upper pharynx region. Some unusual sites of infection include the heart, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and anterior areas of the mouth including the buccal mucosa, the lips, the tongue, and the hard and soft palate.[17] The bacteria has a number of virulence factors to help it localize on areas of the respiratory tract, many of which are yet to be properly researched as diphtheria does not affect many model hosts such as mice. One common virulence factor that has been researched extensively in vitro is DIP0733, a multi-functional protein that has shown to have a role in bacterial adhesion to host cells as well as fibrogen-binding qualities. In experiments creating a mutant strand of the Cor. diphtheriae, adhesion and epithelial infiltration decreased significantly. Furthermore, the ability to bind to extracellular matrix aids the bacteria in avoiding detection by the body's immune system.[18]

The diphtheritic lesion is often covered by a pseudomembrane composed of fibrin, bacterial cells, and inflammatory cells. Diphtheria toxin can be proteolytically cleaved into two fragments - an N-terminal fragment A (catalytic domain), and fragment B (transmembrane and receptor binding domain). Fragment A catalyzes the NAD+ -dependent ADP-ribosylation of elongation factor 2, thereby inhibiting protein synthesis in eukaryotic cells. Fragment B binds to the cell surface receptor and facilitates the delivery of fragment A to the cytosol.[17]

Once the bacteria have localized in one area, they start multiplying and create the inflammatory pseudomembrane. Individuals with faucial diphtheria typically have the pseudomembrane grow over the tonsil and accessory structures, uvula, soft palate, and possibly also the nasopharyngeal area. In upper respiratory tract diphtheria, the pseudomembrane can grow on the pharynx, larynx, trachea, and bronchi/bronchioles. The pseudomembrane starts off white in color and then later becomes dirty-gray and tough due to the necrotic epithelium.[17]

Psuedomembrane formation on the trachea or bronchi will decrease efficiency of airflow. Over time, the diffusion rate in the alveoli decreases due to the lower airflow and decreases the partial pressure of oxygen in the systemic circulation, which can cause cyanosis and suffocation.[17]

Epidemiology

Mode of transmission is person-to-person contact via respiratory droplets (i.e., coughing or sneezing), and less commonly, by touching open sores or contaminated surfaces.

A vaccine, DTaP, effectively prevents the disease and is mandatory in the United States for participation in public education and some professions (exceptions apply).

The invention of the toxoid vaccine, which provides protection against Corynebacterium diphtheriae, caused a dramatic shift on the bacterium’s rate of infection in the United States. Even though the vaccine was first made in the early 1800s, it did not become widely available until the early 1910s. According to the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), “80 percent of persons age 12 to 19 years were immune to diphtheria” due to the wide use of the vaccine in the United States.[19] Diphtheria’s rate of infection has plummeted in populations that are highly vaccinated. However, occasionally the bacterium will cause spontaneous outbreaks despite countries with predominantly vaccinated individuals. A research article through the Journal of Clinical Microbiology states that regions where Diphtheria is common give rise to spontaneous outbreaks in other regions. Recent flare ups of Diphtheria is mainly seen in communities with a weak public health system and low rates of vaccinations.[20]

Stain subtyping involves comparing species of bacteria and categorizing them into subspecies.[21] Strain subtyping also helps with identifying the origin of a certain bacteria’s outbreak. However, when it comes to the subtyping of C. diphtheriae, there is not a lot of useful or accurate classification due to the lack of publicly available resources to identify strains and therefore finding the origin of outbreaks.[20]

Treatment and prevention

When a toxigenic strain of Corynebacterium diphtheriae infects the human body, it releases harmful toxins, especially to the throat. Antitoxins are used to prevent further harm. Antibiotics are also used to fight the infection. Typical antibiotics that are used against diphtheria involve penicillin or erythromycin. People infected with diphtheria must quarantine for at least 48 hours after being prescribed antibiotics. To confirm that the person is no longer contagious, tests are performed ensure that the bacteria have been cleared. People are then vaccinated prevent further transmission of the disease.[22]

The wide-use of the diphtheria vaccine dramatically decreased the rate of infection and allows for primary prevention of the disease. Most people receive a 3-in-1 vaccine that consist of protection against diphtheria, tetanus and pertussis, which is commonly knowns as the DTaP or Tdap vaccine. DTaP vaccine is for children while the Tdap vaccine is known for adolescents and adults[23].

In the United States, doctors recommend the DTaP vaccine to parents of infants which typically involves a series of five shots. These shots are injected through the arm or thigh and are administered when the infant is 2 months, 4 months, 6 months, 15-18 months and then 4-6 years old. [24]

Possible side events that are associated with the diphtheria vaccine include "mild fever, fussiness, drowsiness or tenderness at the injection site". Although it is rare, the DTaP vaccine may cause an allergic reaction that causes hives or a rash to breakout within minutes of administering the vaccine. [25]

Genetics

The genome of C. diphtheriae consists of a single circular chromosome of 2.5 Mbp, with no plasmids.[26] Its genome shows an extreme compositional bias, being noticeably higher in G+C near the origin than at the terminus.

The Corynebacterium diphtheriae genome is a single circular chromosome that has no plasmids. These chromosomes have a high G+C content.

Notes

  1. ^ Pronunciation: /kɔːˈraɪnəbæktɪəriəm dɪfˈθɪərii, -rɪnə-/.

References

  1. ^ Parte AC. "Corynebacterium". LPSN.
  2. ^ Hoskisson PA (June 2018). "Microbe Profile: Corynebacterium diphtheriae - an old foe always ready to seize opportunity". Microbiology. 164 (6): 865–867. doi:10.1099/mic.0.000627. PMC 6097034. PMID 29465341.
  3. ^ Barksdale L (December 1970). "Corynebacterium diphtheriae and its relatives". Bacteriological Reviews. 34 (4): 378–422. doi:10.1128/br.34.4.378-422.1970. PMC 378364. PMID 4322195.
  4. ^ Ott L, Möller J, Burkovski A (March 2022). "Interactions between the Re-Emerging Pathogen Corynebacterium diphtheriae and Host Cells". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 23 (6): 3298. doi:10.3390/ijms23063298. PMC 8952647. PMID 35328715.
  5. ^ a b Muthuirulandi Sethuvel DP, Subramanian N, Pragasam AK, Inbanathan FY, Gupta P, Johnson J, et al. (2019). "Insights to the diphtheria toxin encoding prophages amongst clinical isolates of Corynebacterium diphtheriae from India". Indian Journal of Medical Microbiology. 37 (3): 423–425. doi:10.4103/ijmm.IJMM_19_469. PMID 32003344.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  6. ^ a b c Hadfield TL, McEvoy P, Polotsky Y, Tzinserling VA, Yakovlev AA (February 2000). "The pathology of diphtheria". The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 181 (Suppl 1): S116–S120. doi:10.1086/315551. PMID 10657202.
  7. ^ Clarke K, MacNeil A, Hadler S, Scott C, Tiwari T, Cherian T (October 2019). "Global Epidemiology of Diphtheria, 2000-20171". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 25 (10): 1834–1842. doi:10.3201/eid2510.190271. PMC 6759252. PMID 31538559. {{cite journal}}: Vancouver style error: initials in name 1 (help)
  8. ^ "Diphtheria - Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2022-11-17.
  9. ^ Freeman VJ (June 1951). "Studies on the virulence of bacteriophage-infected strains of Corynebacterium diphtheriae". Journal of Bacteriology. 61 (6): 675–688. doi:10.1128/JB.61.6.675-688.1951. PMC 386063. PMID 14850426.
  10. ^ Freeman VJ, Morse IU (March 1952). "Further observations on the change to virulence of bacteriophage-infected a virulent strains of Corynebacterium diphtheria". Journal of Bacteriology. 63 (3): 407–414. doi:10.1128/JB.63.3.407-414.1952. PMC 169283. PMID 14927573.
  11. ^ Mokrousov I (January 2009). "Corynebacterium diphtheriae: genome diversity, population structure and genotyping perspectives". Infection, Genetics and Evolution. 9 (1): 1–15. doi:10.1016/j.meegid.2008.09.011. PMID 19007916.
  12. ^ Nester EW, Anderson DG, Roberts CE, Pearsall NN, Nester MT (2004). Microbiology: A Human Perspective (Fourth ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill Education. ISBN 978-0-07-291924-0.
  13. ^ Breton D (December 1994). "[Non-toxic Corynebacterium diphtheriae septicemia with endocarditis in an earlier healthy adult. First case and review of the literature]". Presse Medicale (in French). 23 (40): 1859–1861. PMID 7899317.
  14. ^ "Diphtheria Infection | Home | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2017-04-10. Retrieved 2017-11-27.
  15. ^ Tyler R, Rincon L, Weigand MR, Xiaoli L, Acosta AM, Kurien D, et al. (August 2022). "Toxigenic Corynebacterium diphtheriae Infection in Cat, Texas, USA". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 28 (8): 1686–1688. doi:10.3201/eid2808.220018. PMC 9328917. PMID 35876749.
  16. ^ "Diphtheria". MedlinePlus. U.S. National Library of Medicine. Retrieved 2017-11-27.
  17. ^ a b c d Sharma NC, Efstratiou A, Mokrousov I, Mutreja A, Das B, Ramamurthy T (December 2019). "Diphtheria". Nature Reviews. Disease Primers. 5 (1): 81. doi:10.1038/s41572-019-0131-y. PMID 31804499. S2CID 208737335.
  18. ^ Antunes CA, Sanches dos Santos L, Hacker E, Köhler S, Bösl K, Ott L, et al. (March 2015). "Characterization of DIP0733, a multi-functional virulence factor of Corynebacterium diphtheriae". Microbiology. 161 (Pt 3): 639–647. doi:10.1099/mic.0.000020. PMID 25635272.
  19. ^ Stratton K, Ford A, Rusch E, Clayton EW, et al. (Committee to Review Adverse Effects of Medicine) (2011-08-25). Diphtheria Toxoid–, Tetanus Toxoid–, and Acellular Pertussis–Containing Vaccines. National Academies Press (US).
  20. ^ a b Guglielmini J, Hennart M, Badell E, Toubiana J, Criscuolo A, Brisse S (November 2021). Diekema DJ (ed.). "Genomic Epidemiology and Strain Taxonomy of Corynebacterium diphtheriae". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 59 (12): e0158121. doi:10.1128/JCM.01581-21. PMC 8601238. PMID 34524891.
  21. ^ Shariat N, Dudley EG (January 2014). "CRISPRs: molecular signatures used for pathogen subtyping". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 80 (2): 430–439. Bibcode:2014ApEnM..80..430S. doi:10.1128/AEM.02790-13. PMC 3911090. PMID 24162568.
  22. ^ "Diphtheria: Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Prevention". Cleveland Clinic. Retrieved 2022-10-26.
  23. ^ "Diphtheria - Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2022-11-17.
  24. ^ "Diphtheria - Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2022-11-17.
  25. ^ "Diphtheria - Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2022-11-17.
  26. ^ Cerdeño-Tárraga AM, Efstratiou A, Dover LG, Holden MT, Pallen M, Bentley SD, et al. (November 2003). "The complete genome sequence and analysis of Corynebacterium diphtheriae NCTC13129". Nucleic Acids Research. 31 (22): 6516–6523. doi:10.1093/nar/gkg874. PMC 275568. PMID 14602910.

See also

External links

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