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Milton has described the belief that autistic people lack theory of mind as a myth analogous to the now-discredited theory that [[Vaccines and autism|vaccines cause autism]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Milton |first=Damian |date=2014 |title=Autistic expertise: A critical reflection on the production of knowledge in autism studies |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1362361314525281 |journal=Autism |language=en |volume=18 |issue=7 |pages=794–802 |doi=10.1177/1362361314525281 |pmid=24637428 |s2cid=206715678 |issn=1362-3613}}</ref> Emphasising that communication is two-way, Milton proposes that further autism research should focus on bridging the "double empathy gap" by empowering autistic individuals, building rapport and appreciation for their worldview, and moving towards a more continuous understanding of [[neurodiversity]].<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last=Milton |first=Damian |last2=Gurbuz |first2=Emine |last3=López |first3=Beatriz |date=October 2022 |title=The ‘double empathy problem’: Ten years on |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/13623613221129123 |journal=Autism |language=en |volume=26 |issue=8 |pages=1901–1903 |doi=10.1177/13623613221129123 |issn=1362-3613}}</ref> It has also been suggested that the [[medical model of autism]] should be moved away from due to how its messaging could contribute to [[prejudice]] towards autistic people,<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pellicano |first=Elizabeth |last2=Houting |first2=Jacquiline |date=November 2021 |title=Annual Research Review: Shifting from ‘normal science’ to neurodiversity in autism science |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jcpp.13534 |journal=Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry |language=en |volume=63 |issue=4 |pages=381–396 |doi=10.1111/jcpp.13534 |issn=0021-9630 |pmc=9298391 |pmid=34730840}}</ref> further widening this double empathy gap.
Milton has described the belief that autistic people lack theory of mind as a myth analogous to the now-discredited theory that [[Vaccines and autism|vaccines cause autism]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Milton |first=Damian |date=2014 |title=Autistic expertise: A critical reflection on the production of knowledge in autism studies |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1362361314525281 |journal=Autism |language=en |volume=18 |issue=7 |pages=794–802 |doi=10.1177/1362361314525281 |pmid=24637428 |s2cid=206715678 |issn=1362-3613}}</ref> Emphasising that communication is two-way, Milton proposes that further autism research should focus on bridging the "double empathy gap" by empowering autistic individuals, building rapport and appreciation for their worldview, and moving towards a more continuous understanding of [[neurodiversity]].<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last=Milton |first=Damian |last2=Gurbuz |first2=Emine |last3=López |first3=Beatriz |date=October 2022 |title=The ‘double empathy problem’: Ten years on |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/13623613221129123 |journal=Autism |language=en |volume=26 |issue=8 |pages=1901–1903 |doi=10.1177/13623613221129123 |issn=1362-3613}}</ref> It has also been suggested that the [[medical model of autism]] should be moved away from due to how its messaging could contribute to [[prejudice]] towards autistic people,<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pellicano |first=Elizabeth |last2=Houting |first2=Jacquiline |date=November 2021 |title=Annual Research Review: Shifting from ‘normal science’ to neurodiversity in autism science |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jcpp.13534 |journal=Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry |language=en |volume=63 |issue=4 |pages=381–396 |doi=10.1111/jcpp.13534 |issn=0021-9630 |pmc=9298391 |pmid=34730840}}</ref> further widening this double empathy gap.


== Limitations, criticism and future directions ==
== Limitations, criticism, and future directions ==
The generalisability of double empathy findings to younger autistic children and autistic people with an [[intellectual disability]], [[Speech and language impairment|speech-language impairment]], and/or [[Low-functioning autism|higher support needs]] is unknown and will require further research as the literature is still relatively young.<ref name=":2" /> Bidirectional communication and socialisation studies so far have seemingly only included autistic people who are not [[Nonverbal autism|nonverbal]] and do not have an intellectual disability,<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Crompton |first=Catherine J. |last2=DeBrabander |first2=Kilee |last3=Heasman |first3=Brett |last4=Milton |first4=Damian |last5=Sasson |first5=Noah J. |date=2021-05-11 |title=Double Empathy: Why Autistic People Are Often Misunderstood |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frym.2021.554875/full |journal=Frontiers for Young Minds |volume=9 |pages=554875 |doi=10.3389/frym.2021.554875 |issn=2296-6846}}</ref> which is a limitation of the double empathy studies considering the high degree of [[comorbidity]] between autism and intellectual disability; roughly 40% of people with an intellectual disability are autistic and roughly 25-50% of autistic people have an intellectual disability.<ref> https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article/148/6/e2020049899/183390/IQ-in-Autism-Spectrum-Disorder-A-Population-Based </ref>
The generalisability of double empathy findings to younger autistic children and autistic people with an [[intellectual disability]], [[Speech and language impairment|speech-language impairment]], and/or [[Low-functioning autism|higher support needs]] is unknown and will require further research as the literature is still relatively young.<ref name=":2" /> Bidirectional communication and socialisation studies so far have seemingly only included autistic people who are not [[Nonverbal autism|nonverbal]] and do not have an intellectual disability,<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Crompton |first=Catherine J. |last2=DeBrabander |first2=Kilee |last3=Heasman |first3=Brett |last4=Milton |first4=Damian |last5=Sasson |first5=Noah J. |date=2021-05-11 |title=Double Empathy: Why Autistic People Are Often Misunderstood |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frym.2021.554875/full |journal=Frontiers for Young Minds |volume=9 |pages=554875 |doi=10.3389/frym.2021.554875 |issn=2296-6846}}</ref> which is a limitation of the double empathy studies considering the high degree of [[comorbidity]] between autism and intellectual disability; roughly 30% of autistic individuals have an intellectual disability.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bilder |first=Deborah |last2=Botts |first2=Elizabeth L. |last3=Smith |first3=Ken R. |last4=Pimentel |first4=Richard |last5=Farley |first5=Megan |last6=Viskochil |first6=Joseph |last7=McMahon |first7=William M. |last8=Block |first8=Heidi |last9=Ritvo |first9=Edward |last10=Ritvo |first10=Riva-Ariella |last11=Coon |first11=Hilary |date=2012-09-25 |title=Excess Mortality and Causes of Death in Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Follow up of the 1980s Utah/UCLA Autism Epidemiologic Study |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10803-012-1664-z |journal=Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders |language=en |volume=43 |issue=5 |pages=1196–1204 |doi=10.1007/s10803-012-1664-z |issn=0162-3257 |pmc=PMC4814267 |pmid=23008058}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Polyak |first=Andrew |last2=Kubina |first2=Richard M. |last3=Girirajan |first3=Santhosh |date=2015-07-22 |title=Comorbidity of intellectual disability confounds ascertainment of autism: implications for genetic diagnosis |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ajmg.b.32338 |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics |language=en |volume=168 |issue=7 |pages=600–608 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.b.32338}}</ref><ref> {{Cite journal |last=Katusic |first=Maja Z. |last2=Myers |first2=Scott M. |last3=Weaver |first3=Amy L. |last4=Voigt |first4=Robert G. |date=2021-12-01 |title=IQ in Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Population-Based Birth Cohort Study |url=https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article/148/6/e2020049899/183390/IQ-in-Autism-Spectrum-Disorder-A-Population-Based |journal=Pediatrics |language=en |volume=148 |issue=6 |pages=e2020049899 |doi=10.1542/peds.2020-049899 |issn=0031-4005}} </ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Shenouda |first=Josephine |last2=Barrett |first2=Emily |last3=Davidow |first3=Amy L. |last4=Sidwell |first4=Kate |last5=Lescott |first5=Cara |last6=Halperin |first6=William |last7=Silenzio |first7=Vincent M. B. |last8=Zahorodny |first8=Walter |date=2023-02-01 |title=Prevalence and Disparities in the Detection of Autism Without Intellectual Disability |url=https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article/151/2/e2022056594/190525/Prevalence-and-Disparities-in-the-Detection-of |journal=Pediatrics |language=en |volume=151 |issue=2 |pages=e2022056594 |doi=10.1542/peds.2022-056594 |issn=0031-4005}}</ref>


Moreover, double empathy and bidirectional communication studies typically fail to take into account the vast differences in autism and factors like masking, which may interfere with autistic people's ability to communicate and empathise with each other. The [[Jon Entine#Genetic Literacy Project|Genetic Literacy Project]] has criticised Milton's work to improve communication between autistic and neurotypical people by claiming it oversimplifies the ways different autistic people process information and communicate.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Williams |first=Bill |date=2021-11-01 |title=Viewpoint: Advocacy or orthodoxy? How the neurodiversity movement that has sought to normalize autism is changing, and not always for the best |url=https://geneticliteracyproject.org/2021/11/01/viewpoint-advocacy-or-orthodoxy-how-the-neurodiversity-movement-that-has-sought-to-normalize-autism-is-changing-and-not-always-for-the-best/ |access-date=2023-03-31 |website=Genetic Literacy Project |language=en-US}}</ref> There remain large gaps in this area of research,<ref name=":9" /> and further studies are needed in different groups, including siblings of autistic people, non-autistic pupils in [[School|schools]] including autistic peers, late-diagnosed autistic adults, parents of autistic children, and those who support autistic people.<ref name=":18" />
Moreover, double empathy and bidirectional communication studies typically fail to take into account the vast differences in autism and factors like masking, which may interfere with autistic people's ability to communicate and empathise with each other. The [[Jon Entine#Genetic Literacy Project|Genetic Literacy Project]] has criticised Milton's work to improve communication between autistic and neurotypical people by claiming it oversimplifies the ways different autistic people process information and communicate.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Williams |first=Bill |date=2021-11-01 |title=Viewpoint: Advocacy or orthodoxy? How the neurodiversity movement that has sought to normalize autism is changing, and not always for the best |url=https://geneticliteracyproject.org/2021/11/01/viewpoint-advocacy-or-orthodoxy-how-the-neurodiversity-movement-that-has-sought-to-normalize-autism-is-changing-and-not-always-for-the-best/ |access-date=2023-03-31 |website=Genetic Literacy Project |language=en-US}}</ref> There remain large gaps in this area of research,<ref name=":9" /> and further studies are needed in different groups, including siblings of autistic people, non-autistic pupils in [[School|schools]] including autistic peers, late-diagnosed autistic adults, parents of autistic children, and those who support autistic people.<ref name=":18" />

Revision as of 09:34, 4 April 2023

Autistic and non-autistic people can find it difficult to understand each other. The fact that both people in the interaction have trouble with understanding is why the theory is called the double empathy problem.
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The double empathy problem is a theory in psychology, coined in 2012 by autism researcher Damian Milton,[1] which proposes that the social and communication difficulties present in autistic people when socialising with non-autistic people are due to a reciprocal lack of understanding and bidirectional differences in communication style, social-cognitive characteristics, and experiences between autistic people and non-autistic people, but not necessarily an inherent deficiency as most autistic people are able to socialise, communicate,[2] empathise well,[3][4] and display good social reciprocity[5] with most other autistic people.[1][6]

Having the potential to radically shift how autism is seen and diagnosed, the theory of the double empathy problem fundamentally challenges both the common notion that the social skills of autistic people are inherently impaired, as well as the theory of "mind-blindness", developed by Professor Simon Baron-Cohen, which proposes that empathy and theory of mind are generally impaired in autistic people.[7][8][9] The idea that autistic people lack empathy is empirically questionable and has since been disputed due to many failed replications and mixed findings with many different operationalisations and measures.[10][11][12][13][14]

The double empathy problem has now been consistently supported by a substantial number of studies over the last few years.[15] In a podcast in December 2020 and in two research articles in 2018 and 2022, Baron-Cohen positively recognised the double empathy theory and recent findings that support it.[16][17][18]

History

Early studies on autism regarding theory of mind and empathy concluded that a lack of theory of mind was one of the primary symptoms of autism. The most popular of these studies were those by Baron-Cohen in the 1980s and 1990s, who used the term "mind-blindness" to describe his theory,[7][8] proposing a homogeneous explanation of autism as due to either a lack of theory of mind or developmental delay in theory of mind in early childhood.[9] Mind-blindness implies an inability to predict behaviour and attribute mental states including beliefs, desires, emotions, or intentions of other people.[19]

In the early 21st century, academics began to suggest that some studies of theory of mind tests may have misinterpreted autistic people having difficulty understanding neurotypical people as being an intrinsic social difficulty present in autistic individuals. The mind-blindness hypothesis, in addition to being questioned shortly after its publication,[10] has been criticised by the scientific community,[11][13][14] in response to the many failed replications of classic theory of mind studies and the growing body of evidence for the heterogeneity of autism.[20] It seems more likely that autistic people are specifically having trouble understanding neurotypical people, due to the neurological differences between the two groups.[1][21][22]

While the concept of double empathy had existed in prior publications, Milton named and significantly expanded on it.[1][23] Since 2015, there has been an increasing number of research studies, including experimental studies, qualitative research, and real-life social interaction studies supporting the double empathy theory and the findings appear consistent.[2][3][4][5][24][25][26][27][28][29][30] The double empathy theory has also been approached by research projects in various disciplinary areas,[15] such as psychology, neuroscience,[24][31] philosophy,[32] linguistics,[29] film studies,[33] and design.[34]

Neurologically-aligned studies

Studies that have used autistic-autistic pairs to test interpersonal rapport and communication effectiveness in adults have shown that autistic adults perform better in interpersonal rapport and communication effectiveness when paired with other autistic adults, that higher rapport may be present in autistic-autistic interactions than in those between autistic and neurotypical people, and that autistic people may be able to understand and predict each other's thoughts and motivations better than neurotypical people[4] as well as possibly autistic close family members.[35]

Neurotypical individuals tend to have a poor understanding of autistic people, just as autistic people may have a poor understanding of non-autistic people.[1][36][37] It is likely that autistic people understand non-autistic people to a higher degree than vice versa, due to the frequency of masking – i.e., diminishing one's autistic traits and/or personality to better camouflage into a non-autistic society.[1][38] Masking begins at a young age in order to avoid bullying, a common experience for autistic children and adults.[39][40] The bullying targeted at autistic people, along with the problem of ableism in autism research,[41] further suggests that neurotypical people generally lack empathy towards autistic people, which further supports the double empathy theory.

Autistic theory of mind is typically based on the use of rules and logic and may be modulated by differences in thinking.[42] If autistic people were inherently poor at social communication, an interaction between a pair of autistic people would logically be more of a struggle than one between an autistic and neurotypical person. This theory and many subsequent findings contest common assumptions about autistic people in the fields of psychology and psychiatry.

An area of social-cognitive strength in autistic people centres upon anthropomorphism.[43] A 2018 study has shown that autistic people are more prone to object personification,[44] suggesting that autistic empathy may be not only more complex but also more all-encompassing, contrary to the popular belief that autistic people lack empathy. Whilst neurotypical participants have outperformed autistic participants in the "reading the mind in the eyes test" designed by Baron-Cohen in 2001,[45] autistic participants have outperformed neurotypical participants in a cartoon version of said test in a 2022 study,[46] supporting the view of social-cognitive differences rather than deficits in the autistic population.

Autistic perspectives

Many autistic activists have shown support for the double empathy concept, and have argued that past studies done on theory of mind in autism have served to stigmatise autistic people,[6] blame autistic-neurotypical misunderstandings solely on autistic people,[37] and dehumanise autistic people by portraying them as unempathetic.[41] This lack of understanding and resultant stigma and marginalisation felt by autistic people in social settings may negatively impact upon their mental health, employment, accessibility to education and services, and experiences with the criminal justice system.[12][47][48]

Milton has described the belief that autistic people lack theory of mind as a myth analogous to the now-discredited theory that vaccines cause autism.[49] Emphasising that communication is two-way, Milton proposes that further autism research should focus on bridging the "double empathy gap" by empowering autistic individuals, building rapport and appreciation for their worldview, and moving towards a more continuous understanding of neurodiversity.[12][15] It has also been suggested that the medical model of autism should be moved away from due to how its messaging could contribute to prejudice towards autistic people,[41][50] further widening this double empathy gap.

Limitations, criticism, and future directions

The generalisability of double empathy findings to younger autistic children and autistic people with an intellectual disability, speech-language impairment, and/or higher support needs is unknown and will require further research as the literature is still relatively young.[2] Bidirectional communication and socialisation studies so far have seemingly only included autistic people who are not nonverbal and do not have an intellectual disability,[2][51] which is a limitation of the double empathy studies considering the high degree of comorbidity between autism and intellectual disability; roughly 30% of autistic individuals have an intellectual disability.[52][53][54][55]

Moreover, double empathy and bidirectional communication studies typically fail to take into account the vast differences in autism and factors like masking, which may interfere with autistic people's ability to communicate and empathise with each other. The Genetic Literacy Project has criticised Milton's work to improve communication between autistic and neurotypical people by claiming it oversimplifies the ways different autistic people process information and communicate.[56] There remain large gaps in this area of research,[15] and further studies are needed in different groups, including siblings of autistic people, non-autistic pupils in schools including autistic peers, late-diagnosed autistic adults, parents of autistic children, and those who support autistic people.[28]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f Milton, Damian E.M. (October 2012). "On the ontological status of autism: the 'double empathy problem'". Disability & Society. 27 (6): 883–887. doi:10.1080/09687599.2012.710008. ISSN 0968-7599. S2CID 54047060.
  2. ^ a b c d Crompton, Catherine J.; Ropar, Danielle; Evans-Williams, Claire VM; Flynn, Emma G.; Fletcher-Watson, Sue (2020). "Autistic peer-to-peer information transfer is highly effective". Autism. 24 (7): 1704–1712. doi:10.1177/1362361320919286. PMC 7545656. PMID 32431157.
  3. ^ a b Komeda, Hidetsugu; Kosaka, Hirotaka; Fujioka, Toru; Jung, Minyoung; Okazawa, Hidehiko (2019-06-04). "Do Individuals With Autism Spectrum Disorders Help Other People With Autism Spectrum Disorders? An Investigation of Empathy and Helping Motivation in Adults With Autism Spectrum Disorder". Frontiers in Psychiatry. 10: 376. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00376. ISSN 1664-0640. PMC 6558937. PMID 31231254.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  4. ^ a b c Crompton, Catherine J.; Sharp, Martha; Axbey, Harriet; Fletcher-Watson, Sue; Flynn, Emma G.; Ropar, Danielle (2020). "Neurotype-Matching, but Not Being Autistic, Influences Self and Observer Ratings of Interpersonal Rapport". Frontiers in Psychology. 11: 586171. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.586171. PMC 7645034. PMID 33192918.
  5. ^ a b Chen, Yu-Lun; Senande, Laura L.; Thorsen, Michael; Patten, Kristie (2021). "Peer preferences and characteristics of same-group and cross-group social interactions among autistic and non-autistic adolescents". Autism. 25 (7): 1885–1900. doi:10.1177/13623613211005918. PMC 8419288. PMID 34169757.
  6. ^ a b DeThorne, Laura S. (2020-03-01). "Revealing the Double Empathy Problem". The ASHA Leader. 25 (3): 58–65. doi:10.1044/leader.ftr2.25042020.58. S2CID 216359201.
  7. ^ a b Baron-Cohen, Simon; Leslie, Alan M.; Frith, Uta (1985-10-01). "Does the autistic child have a "theory of mind" ?". Cognition. 21 (1): 37–46. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(85)90022-8. ISSN 0010-0277. PMID 2934210. S2CID 14955234.
  8. ^ a b Baron-Cohen, Simon (1988-10-01). "Social and pragmatic deficits in autism: Cognitive or affective?". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 18 (3): 379–402. doi:10.1007/BF02212194. PMID 3049519. S2CID 2050249.
  9. ^ a b Baron-Cohen, Simon (1990-01-01). "Autism: A Specific Cognitive Disorder of & lsquo;Mind-Blindness'". International Review of Psychiatry. 2 (1): 81–90. doi:10.3109/09540269009028274. ISSN 0954-0261.
  10. ^ a b Shanker, Stuart (2004-10-01). "The Roots of Mindblindness". Theory & Psychology. 14 (5): 685–703. doi:10.1177/0959354304046179. ISSN 0959-3543.
  11. ^ a b Gernsbacher, Morton; Yergeau, Melanie (2019). "Empirical Failures of the Claim That Autistic People Lack a Theory of Mind". Archives of Scientific Psychology. 7 (1): 102–118. doi:10.1037/arc0000067. PMC 6959478. PMID 31938672.
  12. ^ a b c Milton, Damian (2018-03-02). "The double empathy problem". National Autistic Society. Retrieved 2023-03-19.
  13. ^ a b Brock, Jon; Sukenik, Nufar; Friedmann, Naama (January 2017). "Individual differences in autistic children's homograph reading: Evidence from Hebrew". Autism & Developmental Language Impairments. 2: 239694151771494. doi:10.1177/2396941517714945. ISSN 2396-9415.
  14. ^ a b Mottron, Laurent; Bzdok, Danilo (2020-04-30). "Autism spectrum heterogeneity: fact or artifact?". Molecular Psychiatry. 25 (12): 3178–3185. doi:10.1038/s41380-020-0748-y. ISSN 1476-5578. PMC 7714694. PMID 32355335.
  15. ^ a b c d Milton, Damian; Gurbuz, Emine; López, Beatriz (October 2022). "The 'double empathy problem': Ten years on". Autism. 26 (8): 1901–1903. doi:10.1177/13623613221129123. ISSN 1362-3613.
  16. ^ "A Conversation About 'The Pattern Seekers' by Simon Baron-Cohen". 2020-12-19.
  17. ^ Richards, Gareth; Baron-Cohen, Simon (2022-05-19). "Evidence of partner similarity for autistic traits, systemizing, and theory of mind via facial expressions". Scientific Reports. 12 (1): 8451. doi:10.1038/s41598-022-11592-z. PMC 9118825. PMID 35589769.
  18. ^ Cassidy, Sarah; Bradley, Louise; Shaw, Rebecca; Baron-Cohen, Simon (2018-07-31). "Risk markers for suicidality in autistic adults". Molecular Autism. 9 (1): 42. doi:10.1186/s13229-018-0226-4. ISSN 2040-2392. PMC 6069847. PMID 30083306.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  19. ^ Gallagher, Helen L.; Frith, Christopher D. (2003-02-01). "Functional imaging of 'theory of mind'". Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 7 (2): 77–83. doi:10.1016/S1364-6613(02)00025-6. ISSN 1364-6613. PMID 12584026.
  20. ^ Betancur, Catalina (2011-03-22). "Etiological heterogeneity in autism spectrum disorders: More than 100 genetic and genomic disorders and still counting". Brain Research. The Emerging Neuroscience of Autism Spectrum Disorders. 1380: 42–77. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2010.11.078. ISSN 0006-8993.
  21. ^ Jackson-Perry, David (2017-09-14). "Autism and Asperger syndrome in adults". Disability & Society. 32 (8): 1280–1282. doi:10.1080/09687599.2017.1362181. ISSN 0968-7599.
  22. ^ Rogers, Kimberley; Dziobek, Isabel; Hassenstab, Jason; Wolf, Oliver T.; Convit, Antonio (2007-04-01). "Who Cares? Revisiting Empathy in Asperger Syndrome". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 37 (4): 709–715. doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0197-8. ISSN 1573-3432. PMID 16906462. S2CID 13999363.
  23. ^ Rozsa, Matthew (2021-06-06). "Being autistic may amount to a language difference — not an impairment". Salon. Retrieved 2023-03-19.
  24. ^ a b Bolis, Dimitris; Lahnakoski, Juha M; Seidel, Daniela; Tamm, Jeanette; Schilbach, Leonhard (2020-10-26). "Interpersonal similarity of autistic traits predicts friendship quality". Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. 16 (1–2). Oxford University Press: 222–231. doi:10.1093/scan/nsaa147. ISSN 1749-5016. PMC 7812635. PMID 33104781.
  25. ^ Morrison, Kerrianne E.; Debrabander, Kilee M.; Jones, Desiree R.; Faso, Daniel J.; Ackerman, Robert A.; Sasson, Noah J. (2020). "Outcomes of real-world social interaction for autistic adults paired with autistic compared to typically developing partners". Autism. 24 (5): 1067–1080. doi:10.1177/1362361319892701. PMID 31823656. S2CID 209317731.
  26. ^ Davis, Rachael; Crompton, Catherine J. (2021). "What do New Findings About Social Interaction in Autistic Adults Mean for Neurodevelopmental Research?". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 16 (3): 649–653. doi:10.1177/1745691620958010. PMC 8114326. PMID 33560175.
  27. ^ Crompton, Catherine J.; Hallett, Sonny; Ropar, Danielle; Flynn, Emma; Fletcher-Watson, Sue (2020). "'I never realised everybody felt as happy as I do when I am around autistic people': A thematic analysis of autistic adults' relationships with autistic and neurotypical friends and family". Autism. 24 (6): 1438–1448. doi:10.1177/1362361320908976. PMC 7376620. PMID 32148068.
  28. ^ a b Mitchell, Peter; Sheppard, Elizabeth; Cassidy, Sarah (2021). "Autism and the double empathy problem: Implications for development and mental health". British Journal of Developmental Psychology. 39 (1): 1–18. doi:10.1111/bjdp.12350. PMID 33393101. S2CID 230489027.
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Further reading

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