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{{Taxobox
{{Taxobox
| image = A regalis.jpg
| image = A regalis.jpg
| image_width = 235px
| image_width = 234px
| regnum = [[Fungus|Fungi]]
| regnum = [[Fungi]]
| divisio = [[Basidiomycota]]
| divisio = [[Basidiomycota]]
| classis = [[Homobasidiomycetae]]
| classis = [[Agaricomycetes]]
| subclassis = [[Hymenomycete]]s
| ordo = [[Agaricales]]
| ordo = [[Agaricales]]
| familia = [[Amanitaceae]]
| familia = [[Amanitaceae]]
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| species = '''''A. regalis'''''
| species = '''''A. regalis'''''
| binomial = ''Amanita regalis''
| binomial = ''Amanita regalis''
| binomial_authority = ([[Elias Magnus Fries|Fr.]]) [[Edmund Michael|Michael]]
| binomial_authority = ([[Elias Magnus Fries|Fr.]]) [[Edmund Michael|Michael]] (1904)
| synonyms_ref = <ref name="urlFungorum synonymy: Amanita regalis"/>
| synonyms_ref = <ref name="urlFungorum synonymy: Amanita regalis"/>
| synonyms = ''Agaricus muscarius'' var. ''umbrinus'' <small>([[Christian Hendrik Persoon|Pers.]]) Fr.</small><br />
| synonyms = ''Amanita umbrina'' <small>Pers. (1797)</small><br>
''Agaricus muscarius'' ß ''regalis'' <small>Fr.</small><br />
''Agaricus muscarius'' ß ''regalis'' <small>Fr. (1821)</small><br>
''Amanita emilii'' <small>Riel</small><br />
''Agaricus muscarius'' var. ''umbrinus'' <small>([[Christian Hendrik Persoon|Pers.]]) Fr. (1838)</small><br>
''Amanita muscaria'' var. ''regalis'' <small>(Fr.) [[Pier Andrea Saccardo|Sacc.]]</small><br />
''Amanita muscaria'' var. ''regalis'' <small>(Fr.) [[Pier Andrea Saccardo|Sacc.]] (1887)</small><br>
''Amanita umbrina'' <small>Pers.</small><br />
''Amanita emilii'' <small>Riel (1907)</small><br>
''Amanitaria muscaria'' var. ''regalis'' <small>(Fr.) [[Jean-Edouard Gilbert|J.-E. Gilbert]]</small>
''Amanitaria muscaria'' var. ''regalis'' <small>(Fr.) [[Jean-Edouard Gilbert|E.-J.Gilbert]] (1941)</small>
}}
}}
{{mycomorphbox
{{mycomorphbox
| name = ''Amanita regalis''
| name=''Amanita regalis''
| whichGills = free
| whichGills=free
| capShape = convex
| capShape=convex
| capShape2 = flat
| capShape2=flat
| hymeniumType=gills
| hymeniumType=gills
| stipeCharacter=ring and volva
| stipeCharacter=ring and volva
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{{stack end}}
{{stack end}}


'''''Amanita regalis''''', commonly known as the '''royal fly agaric''' or the '''king of Sweden Amanita''', is a species of [[fungus]] in the [[Amanitaceae]] family. Common in Scandinavian countries, it is also found in eastern and northern Europe. In North America, its distribution is restricted to [[Alaska]]. The [[basidiocarp|fruit bodies]] of the fungus somewhat resemble the fly Agaric (''[[Amanita muscaria]]''), and it was formerly regarded as a [[variety (botany)|variety]] of this species. ''A. regalis'' differs from it in being larger, with a liver-brown [[pileus (mycology)|cap]] bearing numerous scabs, and in having a [[stipe (mycology)|stem]] which is yellow-[[ochre]] at the base, with patches or rings of patches. [[Analytical chemistry|Chemical analysis]] has shown that this species contains [[ibotenic acid]] and [[muscimol]], the same toxic components found in ''A. muscaria'', but no [[muscarine]] or [[tryptamine]] derivatives have been found.
'''''Amanita regalis''''', commonly known as the '''royal fly agaric''' or the '''king of Sweden Amanita''', is a species of [[fungus]] in the [[Amanitaceae]] family. Common in Scandinavian countries, it is also found in eastern and northern Europe. In North America, its distribution is restricted to [[Alaska]]. The [[basidiocarp|fruit bodies]] of the fungus somewhat resemble the fly agaric (''[[Amanita muscaria]]''), and it was formerly regarded as a [[variety (botany)|variety]] of this species. ''A.&nbsp;regalis'' differs from it in being larger, with a liver-brown [[pileus (mycology)|cap]] bearing numerous scabs, and in having a [[stipe (mycology)|stem]] which is yellow-[[ochre]] at the base, with patches or rings of patches. [[Analytical chemistry|Chemical analysis]] has shown that this species contains [[ibotenic acid]] and [[muscimol]], the same toxic components found in ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'', but no [[muscarine]] or [[tryptamine]] derivatives have been found.


==Taxonomy and naming==
==Taxonomy and naming==
''Amanita regalis'' was first described as ''Agaricus muscarius'' ß ''regalis'' by [[Elias Magnus Fries]] in his ''[[Systema Mycologicum]]'', published in 1821.<ref name=Fries1821/> In 1887, [[Pier Andrea Saccardo]] treated it as a [[variety (botany)|variety]] of ''Amanita&nbsp;muscaria''.<ref name=Saccardo1887/> [[Edmund Michael]], in 1903, became the first to consider it a distinct species.<ref name=Michael1903/> In 1941, [[Jean-Edouard Gilbert]] suggested a complete reorganization of the genus ''[[Amanita]]'' in his world [[monograph]] of the genus, and moved it to ''Amanitaria'' as ''A. muscaria'' var. ''regalis''.<ref name=Gilbert1941/> In his original (1949) version of ''Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy'', [[Rolf Singer]] considered it a [[subspecies]] of ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'', but noted that it may be regarded as a separate species; in his fourth edition (1986), he listed it as a distinct species.<ref name=Singer1986/> ''A regalis'' is classified in a section of ''Amanita'' within the genus, a grouping of related Amanitas that have a [[annulus (mycology)|ring]] on the [[stipe (mycology)|stem]] (or remnants thereof), and a bulb at the base of it.<ref name=Jenkinsp16>Jenkins, p. 16.</ref> More recently, a Japanese group studied the [[biogeography]] of ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'' and related species, and, using [[molecular phylogenetic]] analysis, concluded that the taxon should be considered a grouping of ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'', rather than a distinct species.<ref name=Oda2004/> However, as of 2009, both [[Index Fungorum]] and [[MycoBank]] list the taxon as ''Amanita regalis''.<ref name="urlFungorum synonymy: Amanita regalis"/><ref name=MycoBank/>
''Amanita regalis'' was first described as ''Agaricus muscarius'' ß ''regalis'' by [[Elias Magnus Fries]] in his ''[[Systema Mycologicum]]'', published in 1821.<ref name=Fries1821/> In 1887, [[Pier Andrea Saccardo]] treated it as a [[variety (botany)|variety]] of ''Amanita&nbsp;muscaria''.<ref name=Saccardo1887/> [[Edmund Michael]], in 1903, became the first to consider it a distinct species.<ref name=Michael1903/> In 1941, [[Jean-Edouard Gilbert]] suggested a complete reorganization of the genus ''[[Amanita]]'' in his world [[monograph]] of the genus, and moved it to ''Amanitaria'' as ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'' var. ''regalis''.<ref name=Gilbert1941/> In his original (1949) version of ''Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy'', [[Rolf Singer]] considered it a [[subspecies]] of ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'', but noted that it may be regarded as a separate species; in the fourth edition (1986), he listed it as a distinct species.<ref name=Singer1986/> ''A.&nbsp;regalis'' is classified in a section of ''Amanita'' within the genus, a grouping of related Amanitas that have a [[annulus (mycology)|ring]] on the [[stipe (mycology)|stem]] (or remnants thereof), and a bulb at the base of it.<ref name=Jenkinsp16>Jenkins (1986), p. 16.</ref> More recently, a Japanese group studied the [[biogeography]] of ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'' and related species, and, using [[molecular phylogenetic]] analysis, concluded that the taxon should be considered a grouping of ''A.&nbsp;muscaria'', rather than a distinct species.<ref name=Oda2004/> However, as of 2012, both [[Index Fungorum]] and [[MycoBank]] list the taxon as ''Amanita regalis''.<ref name="urlFungorum synonymy: Amanita regalis"/><ref name=MycoBank/>


The species has been called by several [[common name|vernacular]] names, including the "royal fly agaric",<ref name=Stijve2000/> the "king of Sweden Amanita",<ref name=Tulloss2009/> the "brown fly agaric", or the king fly agaric.<ref name="Fungi of Latvia"/> In France it is known as ''Amanite royale'',<ref name=Danel1999/> while in Germany it is ''Königsfliegenpilz''.<ref name=Ternes2005/> The specific epithet is derived from the [[Latin]] word ''regalis'', meaning "royal".<ref name=Manser1999/> In 2000, it was selected by the German Mycological Society as "Mushroom of the Year".<ref name=Stijve2000/>
The species has been called by several [[common name|vernacular]] names, including the "royal fly agaric",<ref name=Stijve2000/> the "king of Sweden Amanita",<ref name=Tulloss2009/> the "brown fly agaric", or the king fly agaric.<ref name="Fungi of Latvia"/> In France it is known as ''Amanite royale'',<ref name=Danel1999/> while in Germany it is ''Königsfliegenpilz''.<ref name=Ternes2005/> The specific epithet is derived from the [[Latin]] word ''regalis'', meaning "royal".<ref name=Manser1999/> In 2000, it was selected by the German Mycological Society as "Mushroom of the Year".<ref name=Stijve2000/>
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===Microscopic features===
===Microscopic features===
The spores are broadly ellipsoid to roughly spherical, [[hyaline]] (translucent), smooth, and have dimensions of 9–12 by 7–8&nbsp;[[micrometre|µm]]. They are non-amyloid, meaning that they do not absorb iodine when stained with [[Melzer's reagent]].<ref name=Pilat1961/> The spore-producing cells, the [[basidia]], are club-shaped, measure 38–46 by 3–13&nbsp;µm, and have clamps at their bases.<ref name=Jenkinsp38>Jenkins, p. 38.</ref>
The spores are broadly ellipsoid to roughly spherical, [[hyaline]] (translucent), smooth, and have dimensions of 9–12 by 7–8&nbsp;[[micrometre|µm]]. They are non-amyloid, meaning that they do not absorb iodine when stained with [[Melzer's reagent]].<ref name=Pilat1961/> The spore-producing cells, the [[basidia]], are club-shaped, measure 38–46 by 3–13&nbsp;µm, and have clamps at their bases.<ref name=Jenkinsp38>Jenkins (1986), p. 38.</ref>


==Similar species==
==Similar species==
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==Habitat and distribution==
==Habitat and distribution==
''Amanita regalis'' is a rare species typically found growing on the ground in [[montane|mountainous]] forests, both [[deciduous forest|deciduous]] and [[coniferous forest|coniferous]].<ref name=Oda2004/> It is a [[mycorrhizae|mycorrhizal]] fungus, and exists in a symbiotic relationship with certain tree species. The system of fine below-ground threads, the [[mycelium]], envelopes the roots of the trees and supplies them with needed [[dietary mineral|minerals]], [[trace element]]s and water from the soil, while the tree, in turn, supplies the fungus with food from its own supply, which it produces through [[photosynthesis]]. ''A.&nbsp;regalis'' has been shown experimentally to form mycorrhiza with [[birch]], [[Scots pine]], [[Mountain pine]], and [[Norway spruce]].<ref name=Maijala1991/><ref name=Modess1939/>
''Amanita regalis'' is a rare species typically found growing on the ground in [[montane|mountainous]] forests, both [[deciduous forest|deciduous]] and [[coniferous forest|coniferous]].<ref name=Oda2004/> It is a [[mycorrhizae|mycorrhizal]] fungus, and exists in a symbiotic relationship with certain tree species. The system of fine below-ground threads, the [[mycelium]], envelopes the roots of the trees and supplies them with needed [[dietary mineral|minerals]], [[trace element]]s and water from the soil, while the tree, in turn, supplies the fungus with food from its own supply, which it produces through [[photosynthesis]]. ''A.&nbsp;regalis'' has been shown experimentally to form mycorrhiza with [[birch]], [[Scots pine]], [[Mountain pine]], and [[Norway spruce]].<ref name=Maijala1991/><ref name=Modess1939/> Fruit bodies have been reported to grow in [[fairy ring]]s.<ref name=Dietrich2010/>


In Europe it is more common in northern than south Europe, and it has not been reported from south and west Europe.<ref name=Pilat1961/> In addition to being common in [[Scandinavia]]n countries,<ref name=Bresinsky1989/> it has been collected in [[Germany]],<ref name=Dorfelt2003/> [[Hungary]],<ref name=Vasas1991/> [[Latvia]],<ref name="Fungi of Latvia"/> Russia,<ref name=Kirillova2006/> [[Slovakia]],<ref name=Lizon1989/> and [[Korea]].<ref name=Park1992/> In North America, its distribution is restricted to [[Alaska]],<ref name=Jenkinsp38/> where it is usually found above the [[tree line]].<ref name=Tulloss2009/>
In Europe it is more common in northern than south Europe, and it has not been reported from south and west Europe.<ref name=Pilat1961/> In addition to being common in [[Scandinavia]]n countries,<ref name=Bresinsky1989/> it has been collected in [[Germany]],<ref name=Dorfelt2003/> [[Hungary]],<ref name=Vasas1991/> [[Latvia]],<ref name="Fungi of Latvia"/> Russia,<ref name=Kirillova2006/> [[Slovakia]],<ref name=Lizon1989/> and [[Korea]].<ref name=Park1992/> In North America, its distribution is restricted to [[Alaska]],<ref name=Jenkinsp38/> where it is usually found above the [[tree line]].<ref name=Tulloss2009/>
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==Toxicity==
==Toxicity==
{{Multiple image|direction=vertical|align=left|image1=Ibotenic acid2.png|image2=Muscimol chemical structure.svg|width=140|caption1=Ibotenic acid|caption2=Muscimol}}
{{Multiple image|direction=vertical|align=left|image1=Ibotenic acid2.png|image2=Muscimol chemical structure.svg|width=140|caption1=Ibotenic acid|caption2=Muscimol}}
''Amanita regalis'' is [[mushroom poisoning|poisonous]]. A case of [[mushroom poisoning|poisoning]] was reported from [[Finland]], where three individuals believed they had consumed the [[edible mushroom|edible]] parasol mushroom ''[[Macrolepiota procera]]''. The symptoms of poisoning, which began 1–2&nbsp;hours after ingestion of the mushrooms, were gastrointestinal—nausea and heavy vomiting. Two had [[central nervous system]] manifestations and [[cholinergic]] symptoms, including [[hallucination]]s, [[mental confusion|confusion]], or loss of consciousness as well as profuse salivation, or sweating. All three individuals recovered within 4–24&nbsp;hours without any damage to [[liver]], [[kidney]]s or the central nervous system. As this incident demonstrates, cooking the mushrooms does not completely neutralize the toxic components of ''Amanita regalis''.<ref name=Elonen1979/> [[Analytical chemistry|Chemical analysis]] has shown that this species contains [[ibotenic acid]] and [[muscimol]],<ref name=Bresinsky1989/> the same toxic constituents of the ordinary fly agaric.<ref>{{cite pmid|16810488}}</ref> However, no [[muscarine]] or [[tryptamine]] derivatives have been found.<ref name=Stijve2000/>
''Amanita regalis'' is [[mushroom poisoning|poisonous]]. A case of [[mushroom poisoning|poisoning]] was reported from [[Finland]], where three individuals believed they had consumed the [[edible mushroom|edible]] parasol mushroom ''[[Macrolepiota procera]]''. The symptoms of poisoning, which began 1–2&nbsp;hours after ingestion of the mushrooms, were gastrointestinal—nausea and heavy vomiting. Two had [[central nervous system]] manifestations and [[cholinergic]] symptoms, including [[hallucination]]s, [[mental confusion|confusion]], or loss of consciousness as well as profuse salivation, or sweating. All three individuals recovered within 4–24&nbsp;hours without any damage to [[liver]], [[kidney]]s or the central nervous system. As this incident demonstrates, cooking the mushrooms does not completely neutralize the toxic components of ''Amanita regalis''.<ref name=Elonen1979/> [[Analytical chemistry|Chemical analysis]] has shown that this species contains [[ibotenic acid]] and [[muscimol]],<ref name=Bresinsky1989/> the same toxic constituents of the ordinary fly agaric.<ref name=Brvar2006/> However, no [[muscarine]] or [[tryptamine]] derivatives have been found.<ref name=Stijve2000/>


''Amanita regalis'' has the ability to [[bioaccumulation|bioaccumulate]] the [[heavy metal (chemistry)|heavy metal]] [[vanadium]], a phenomenon first reported in ''Amanita muscaria'' in 1931.<ref name=TerMeulen1931/> A field study of Scandinavian specimens found vanadium contents ranging from 38 to 169&nbsp;mg of vanadium per kg of dry mushroom (average of 119&nbsp;mg/kg).<ref name=Meisch1979/> For comparison, the vanadium concentration in most other mushrooms is typically less than 2&nbsp;mg/kg.<ref name=Sigel1995/>
''Amanita regalis'' has the ability to [[bioaccumulation|bioaccumulate]] the [[heavy metal (chemistry)|heavy metal]] [[vanadium]], a phenomenon first reported in ''Amanita muscaria'' in 1931.<ref name=TerMeulen1931/> A field study of Scandinavian specimens found vanadium contents ranging from 38 to 169&nbsp;mg of vanadium per kg of dry mushroom (average of 119&nbsp;mg/kg).<ref name=Meisch1979/> For comparison, the vanadium concentration in most other mushrooms is typically less than 2&nbsp;mg/kg.<ref name=Sigel1995/>
{{-}}


==See also==
==See also==
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{{Reflist|colwidth=30em|refs=
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em|refs=


<ref name=Bresinsky1989>{{cite book |author=Bresinsky A, Besl H.|title=A Colour Atlas of Poisonous Fungi: a Handbook for Pharmacists, Doctors, and Biologists |publisher=Manson Publishing Ltd |location=London |year=1989 |pages=105–106 |isbn=0-7234-1576-5 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=EIcQGsZ2kksC&lpg=PA105&dq=Amanita%20regalis&pg=PA105#v=onepage&q=Amanita%20regalis |accessdate=2010-01-03}}</ref>
<ref name=Bresinsky1989>{{cite book |author=Bresinsky A, Besl H. |title=A Colour Atlas of Poisonous Fungi: A Handbook for Pharmacists, Doctors, and Biologists |publisher=Manson Publishing |location=London, UK |year=1989 |pages=105–6 |isbn=0723415765 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=EIcQGsZ2kksC&pg=PA105}}</ref>


<ref name=Brvar2006>{{Cite journal |author=Brvar M., Mozina M, Bunc M.|title=Prolonged psychosis after ''Amanita muscaria'' ingestion |year=2006 |volume=118 |issue=9–10 |pages=294–7 |journal=Wiener klinische Wochenschrift |pmid=16810488 |doi=10.1007/s00508-006-0581-6}}</ref>
⚫
<ref name=Danel1999>{{cite book |title=Intoxications aiguës en réanimation |last=Danel V, Barriot P. |edition=2 |year=1999 |publisher=Arnette |isbn=978-2718409771 |page=539 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=bmNeCCXJZcIC&lpg=PA539&dq=Amanita%20regalis&pg=PA539#v=onepage&q=Amanita%20regalis |accessdate=2010-01-03 |language=French}}</ref>

⚫
<ref name=Danel1999>{{cite book |title=Intoxications aiguës en réanimation |author=Danel V, Barriot P. |edition=2 |year=1999 |publisher=Arnette |isbn=9782718409771 |page=539 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=bmNeCCXJZcIC&pg=PA539 |language=French}}</ref>

<ref name=Dietrich2010>{{cite journal |author=Dietrich W, Krause E. |title=Pilzfunde im Mittleren Erzgebirge |trans_title=Records of fungi from the central part of the mountain Erzgebirge |journal=Boletus |year=2010 |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=13–25 |issn=0232-4598 |language=German}}</ref>


<ref name=Dorfelt2003>{{cite journal |author=Dorfelt H, Bresinsky A. |year=2003 |title=Distribution and ecology of selected Macromycetes in Germany |journal=Zeitschrift für Mykologie |volume=69 |issue=2 |pages=177–286 |issn=0170-110X}}</ref>
<ref name=Dorfelt2003>{{cite journal |author=Dorfelt H, Bresinsky A. |year=2003 |title=Distribution and ecology of selected Macromycetes in Germany |journal=Zeitschrift für Mykologie |volume=69 |issue=2 |pages=177–286 |issn=0170-110X}}</ref>


<ref name=Elonen1979>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.0954-6820.1979.tb06016.x |author=Elonen E, Tarssanen L, Härkönen M. |year= 1979 |title=Poisoning with brown fly agaric ''Amanita regalis'' |journal=Acta Medica Scandinavica |volume=205 |issue=1–2 |pages=121–23 |pmid=760400}}</ref>
<ref name=Elonen1979>{{cite journal |author=Elonen E, Tarssanen L, Härkönen M. |year=1979 |title=Poisoning with brown fly agaric ''Amanita regalis'' |journal=Acta Medica Scandinavica |volume=205 |issue=1–2 |pages=121–3 |pmid=760400 |doi=10.1111/j.0954-6820.1979.tb06016.x}}</ref>


<ref name=Fries1821>{{cite book |title=Systema Mycologicum |volume=1 |last=Fries EM. |year=1821 |publisher=ex officina Berlingiana |location=Lund |page=16 |url=http://www.archive.org/stream/systemamycologi03friegoog#page/n79/mode/1up |accessdate=2010-01-03 |language=Latin}}</ref>
<ref name=Fries1821>{{cite book |title=Systema Mycologicum |volume=1 |author=Fries EM. |year=1821 |publisher=Ex Officina Berlingiana |location=Lund, Sweden |page=16 |url=http://www.archive.org/stream/systemamycologi03friegoog#page/n79/mode/1up |language=Latin}}</ref>


<ref name="Fungi of Latvia">{{cite web |url=http://www.fungi.lv/amanita_regalis.htm |title=''Amanita regalis'' |author=Mukins E, Mukina Z. |work= Latvijas sēnes [Fungi of Latvia]|accessdate=2010-01-03}}</ref>
<ref name="Fungi of Latvia">{{cite web |url=http://www.fungi.lv/amanita_regalis.htm |title=''Amanita regalis'' |author=Mukins E, Mukina Z |work=Latvijas sēnes [Fungi of Latvia] |accessdate=2010-01-03}}</ref>


<ref name=Gilbert1941>{{cite journal |author=Gilbert E-J. |year=1940 |title=The Amanitas of the world |journal=Iconographia mycologica |volume=27 |issue=Suppl. 1 |page=77}}</ref>
<ref name=Gilbert1941>{{cite journal |author=Gilbert E-J. |year=1940 |title=The Amanitas of the world |journal=Iconographia mycologica |volume=27 |issue=Suppl. 1 |page=77}}</ref>
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<ref name=Lizon1989>{{cite journal |author=Lizon P. |year=1989 |title=Maps of distribution of fungi in Slovakia Czechoslovakia 1 |journal=Zbornik Slovenskeho Narodneho Muzea Prirodne Vedy |volume=35 |pages=17–28 |issn=0374-1168}}</ref>
<ref name=Lizon1989>{{cite journal |author=Lizon P. |year=1989 |title=Maps of distribution of fungi in Slovakia Czechoslovakia 1 |journal=Zbornik Slovenskeho Narodneho Muzea Prirodne Vedy |volume=35 |pages=17–28 |issn=0374-1168}}</ref>


<ref name=Maijala1991>{{cite journal |author=Maijala P, Fagerstedt KV, Raudaskoski M. |year=1991 |title=Detection of extracellular cellulolytic and proteolytic activity in ectomycorrhizal fungi and ''Heterobasidion annosum'' (Fr.) Bref. |journal=New Phytologist |volume=117 |issue=4 |pages=643–48 |jstor=2557755 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-8137.1991.tb00968.x}}</ref>
<ref name=Maijala1991>{{cite journal |author=Maijala P, Fagerstedt KV, Raudaskoski M. |year=1991 |title=Detection of extracellular cellulolytic and proteolytic activity in ectomycorrhizal fungi and ''Heterobasidion annosum'' (Fr.) Bref. |journal=New Phytologist |volume=117 |issue=4 |pages=643–8 |jstor=2557755 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-8137.1991.tb00968.x}}</ref>


<ref name=Manser1999>{{cite book |author=Manser MH, Turton ND. |title=Advanced Learners' Dictionary (Wordsworth Reference) |publisher=Wordsworth Editions Ltd |year=1999 |page=584 |isbn=1-85326-763-5 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=DXHJ1ylVHnYC&lpg=PA584&dq=Latin%20regalis&pg=PA584#v=onepage&q=Latin%20regalis |accessdate=2010-01-04}}</ref>
<ref name=Manser1999>{{cite book |author=Manser MH, Turton ND. |title=Advanced Learners' Dictionary (Wordsworth Reference) |publisher=Wordsworth Editions Ltd |year=1999 |page=584 |isbn=1853267635 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=DXHJ1ylVHnYC&pg=PA584}}</ref>


<ref name=Meisch1979>{{cite journal |author=Meisch H-U, Reinle W, Schmitt JA. |year=1979 |title=High vanadium content in mushrooms is not restricted to the Fly Agaric (''Amanita muscaria'') |journal=Naturwissenschaften |volume=66 |issue=12 |pages=620–21 |issn=0028-1042 |doi=10.1007/BF00405131 }}</ref>
<ref name=Meisch1979>{{cite journal |author=Meisch H-U, Reinle W, Schmitt JA. |year=1979 |title=High vanadium content in mushrooms is not restricted to the Fly Agaric (''Amanita muscaria'') |journal=Naturwissenschaften |volume=66 |issue=12 |pages=620–1 |issn=0028-1042 |doi=10.1007/BF00405131}}</ref>


<ref name=Michael1903>{{cite book |title=Führer für Pilzfreunde. Die am häufigsten vorkommenden essbaren, verdächtigen und giftigen Pilze |last= Michael E. |year=1903 |publisher= |page= pl. 75}}</ref>
<ref name=Michael1903>{{cite book |title=Führer für Pilzfreunde. Die am häufigsten vorkommenden essbaren, verdächtigen und giftigen Pilze |author=Michael E. |year=1903 |publisher= |page=pl. 75 |language=German}}</ref>


<ref name=Modess1939>{{cite journal |author=Modess O. |year=1939 |title=Experimental studies in Hymenomycetes and Gasteromycetes as mycorrhiza-producers on Pine and Spruce (Preliminary note) |journal=Svensk Botanisk Tidskrift |volume=33 |pages=91–93 |language=German}}</ref>
<ref name=Modess1939>{{cite journal |author=Modess O. |year=1939 |title=Experimental studies in Hymenomycetes and Gasteromycetes as mycorrhiza-producers on Pine and Spruce (Preliminary note) |journal=Svensk Botanisk Tidskrift |volume=33 |pages=91–3 |language=German}}</ref>


<ref name=MycoBank>{{cite web |url=http://www.mycobank.org/MycoTaxo.aspx?Link=T&Rec=454253 |title=''Amanita regalis'' |publisher=International Mycological Association |work=MycoBank, the fungal website |accessdate=2010-01-03}}</ref>
<ref name=MycoBank>{{cite web |url=http://www.mycobank.org/MycoTaxo.aspx?Link=T&Rec=454253 |title=''Amanita regalis'' (Fr.) Michael 1904 |publisher=[[MycoBank]]. International Mycological Association |accessdate=2012-01-22}}</ref>


<ref name=Oda2004>{{cite journal |author=Oda T, Tanaka C, Tsuda M. |year=2004 |title=Molecular phylogeny and biogeography of the widely distributed ''Amanita'' species, ''A. muscaria'' and ''A. pantherina'' |journal=Mycological Research |volume=108 |issue=8 |pages=885–96 |doi=10.1017/S0953756204000620}}</ref>
<ref name=Oda2004>{{cite journal |author=Oda T, Tanaka C, Tsuda M. |year=2004 |title=Molecular phylogeny and biogeography of the widely distributed ''Amanita'' species, ''A. muscaria'' and ''A. pantherina'' |journal=Mycological Research |volume=108 |issue=8 |pages=885–96 |doi=10.1017/S0953756204000620}}</ref>
Line 107: Line 111:
<ref name=Park1992>{{cite journal |author=Park SS, Cho D-H. |year=1992 |title=The mycoflora of higher fungi in Mt. Paekdu and adjacent areas I |journal=Korean Journal of Mycology |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=11–28 |issn=0253-651x}}</ref>
<ref name=Park1992>{{cite journal |author=Park SS, Cho D-H. |year=1992 |title=The mycoflora of higher fungi in Mt. Paekdu and adjacent areas I |journal=Korean Journal of Mycology |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=11–28 |issn=0253-651x}}</ref>


<ref name=Pilat1961>{{cite book |title=Mushrooms and other Fungi |last=Pilat Á, Ušák O. |year=1961 |publisher=Peter Nevill |location=London |page=148}}</ref>
<ref name=Pilat1961>{{cite book |title=Mushrooms and other Fungi |author=Pilát A. |year=1961 |publisher=Peter Nevill |location=London, UK |page=148}}</ref>


<ref name=Saccardo1887>{{cite journal |author=Saccardo PA. |year=1887 |title=Sylloge Hymenomycetum, Vol. I. Agaricineae |journal=Sylloge Fungorum |volume=5 |page=13 |language=Latin}}</ref>
<ref name=Saccardo1887>{{cite journal |author=Saccardo PA. |year=1887 |title=Sylloge Hymenomycetum, Vol. I. Agaricineae |journal=Sylloge Fungorum |volume=5 |page=13 |language=Latin}}</ref>


<ref name=Sigel1995>{{cite book |author=Sigel A, Sigel H. |title=Vanadium and its role in life |publisher=M. Dekker |location=New York |year=1995 |page=408 |isbn=0-8247-9383-8 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=QldvdY1rWGkC&lpg=PA408&dq=Amanita%20regalis&pg=PA408#v=onepage&q=Amanita%20regalis |accessdate=2010-01-03}}</ref>
<ref name=Sigel1995>{{cite book |author=Sigel A, Sigel H. |title=Vanadium and its Role in Life |publisher=M. Dekker |location=New York, New York |year=1995 |page=408 |isbn=0824793838 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=QldvdY1rWGkC&pg=PA408}}</ref>


<ref name=Singer1986>{{cite book |author=Singer R. |title=The Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy. |edition=4th |publisher=Koeltz Scientific Books|location=Koenigstein |year=1986|page=450|isbn=3-87429-254-1}}</ref>
<ref name=Singer1986>{{cite book |author=Singer R. |title=The Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy |edition=4th |publisher=Koeltz Scientific Books |location=Königstein im Taunus, Germany |year=1986 |page=450 |isbn=3874292541}}</ref>


<ref name=Stijve2000>{{cite journal |last=Stijve T. |year= 2000 |title= De koningsvliegezwam, ''Amanita regalis'' (Fr.) Michael, de paddestoel van het jaar 2000 |trans_title=The Royal fly agaric, ''Amanita regalis'' (Fr.) Michael, is mushroom of the year 2000 |journal=AMK Mededelingen |volume= |issue=2 |pages=46–51 |language=Dutch |issn=0771-9884}}</ref>
<ref name=Stijve2000>{{cite journal |author=Stijve T. |year=2000 |title=De koningsvliegezwam, ''Amanita regalis'' (Fr.) Michael, de paddestoel van het jaar 2000 |trans_title=The Royal fly agaric, ''Amanita regalis'' (Fr.) Michael, is mushroom of the year 2000 |journal=AMK Mededelingen |volume= |issue=2 |pages=46–51 |language=Dutch |issn=0771-9884}}</ref>


<ref name=TerMeulen1931>{{cite journal |doi=10.1002/recl.19310500603 |author=Ter Meulen EV. |year=1931 |title=Sur la repartition de molybdene dans la nature |journal=Recueil des Travaux Chimiques des Pays-Bas |volume=50 |issue= 6|pages=491–504|language=French}}</ref>
<ref name=TerMeulen1931>{{cite journal |author=Ter Meulen EV. |year=1931 |title=Sur la repartition de molybdene dans la nature |journal=Recueil des Travaux Chimiques des Pays-Bas |volume=50 |issue=6 |pages=491–504 |language=French |doi=10.1002/recl.19310500603}}</ref>


<ref name=Ternes2005>{{cite book |author=Terpes W, Täufel A, Tunger L, Zobel M. |title=Lebensmittel-Lexikon |publisher=Behr |year=2005 |page=707 |isbn=3-89947-165-2 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=_3qNbZeXMW4C&lpg=PA707&dq=Amanita%20regalis&pg=PA707#v=onepage&q=Amanita%20regalis |accessdate=2010-01-03 |language=German}}</ref>
<ref name=Ternes2005>{{cite book |author=Terpes W, Täufel A, Tunger L, Zobel M. |title=Lebensmittel-Lexikon |publisher=Behr |year=2005 |page=707 |isbn=3899471652 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=_3qNbZeXMW4C&pg=PA707 |language=German}}</ref>


<ref name=Tulloss2009>{{cite web |url=http://www.njcc.com/~ret/amanita/species/regaliss.html |title=''Amanita regalis'' (Fr.) Michael |author=Tulloss RE |work=''Amanita'' studies |accessdate=2010-01-03}}</ref>
<ref name=Tulloss2009>{{cite web |url=http://www.njcc.com/~ret/amanita/species/regaliss.html |title=''Amanita regalis'' (Fr.) Michael |author=Tulloss RE |work=''Amanita'' studies |accessdate=2010-01-03}}</ref>


<ref name="urlFungorum synonymy: Amanita regalis">{{cite web |url=http://www.speciesfungorum.org/Names/SynSpecies.asp?RecordID=454253 |title=''Amanita regalis'' (Fr.) Michael |publisher=CAB International |work=Species Fungorum |accessdate=2010-08-01}}</ref>
<ref name="urlFungorum synonymy: Amanita regalis">{{cite web |url=http://www.speciesfungorum.org/Names/SynSpecies.asp?RecordID=454253 |title=''Amanita regalis'' (Fr.) Michael |publisher=Species Fungorum . CAB International |accessdate=2012-01-22}}</ref>


<ref name=Vasas1991>{{cite journal |title=Interesting mushrooms from Hungary III. Basidiomycetes Agaricales |last=Vasas G, Locsmandi C, Albert L. |year=1991 |journal=Annales Historico-Naturales Musei Nationalis Hungarici |volume=83 |pages=87–89 |language=Hungarian |issn=0521-4726}}</ref>
<ref name=Vasas1991>{{cite journal |title=Interesting mushrooms from Hungary III. Basidiomycetes Agaricales |author=Vasas G, Locsmandi C, Albert L. |year=1991 |journal=Annales Historico-Naturales Musei Nationalis Hungarici |volume=83 |pages=87–9 |language=Hungarian |issn=0521-4726}}</ref>


}}
}}


===Cited text===
===Cited text===
*{{cite book |author=Jenkins DB. |title=''Amanita'' of North America |publisher=Mad River Press |location=Eureka, California |year=1986|isbn=0-916422-55-0}}
*{{cite book |author=Jenkins DB. |title=''Amanita'' of North America |publisher=Mad River Press |location=Eureka, California |year=1986|isbn=0916422550}}
{{Amanitas}}
{{Amanitas}}
{{Poisonous Amanitas}}
{{Poisonous Amanitas}}


[[Category:Amanita|regalis]]
[[Category:Amanita|regalis]]
[[Category:Fungi described in 1821]]
[[Category:Fungi found in fairy rings]]
[[Category:Fungi of North America]]
[[Category:Fungi of North America]]
[[Category:Fungi of Europe]]
[[Category:Fungi of Europe]]

Revision as of 05:17, 23 January 2012

Amanita regalis
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Fungi
Division:
Basidiomycota
Class:
Agaricomycetes
Order:
Agaricales
Family:
Amanitaceae
Genus:
Amanita
Species:
A. regalis
Binomial name
Amanita regalis
(Fr.) Michael (1904)
Synonyms[1]

Amanita umbrina Pers. (1797)
Agaricus muscarius ß regalis Fr. (1821)
Agaricus muscarius var. umbrinus (Pers.) Fr. (1838)
Amanita muscaria var. regalis (Fr.) Sacc. (1887)
Amanita emilii Riel (1907)
Amanitaria muscaria var. regalis (Fr.) E.-J.Gilbert (1941)

Amanita regalis
View the Mycomorphbox template that generates the following list
Gills on hymenium
Cap is convex or flat
Hymenium is free
Stipe has a ring and volva
Spore print is white
Ecology is mycorrhizal
Edibility is poisonous

Amanita regalis, commonly known as the royal fly agaric or the king of Sweden Amanita, is a species of fungus in the Amanitaceae family. Common in Scandinavian countries, it is also found in eastern and northern Europe. In North America, its distribution is restricted to Alaska. The fruit bodies of the fungus somewhat resemble the fly agaric (Amanita muscaria), and it was formerly regarded as a variety of this species. A. regalis differs from it in being larger, with a liver-brown cap bearing numerous scabs, and in having a stem which is yellow-ochre at the base, with patches or rings of patches. Chemical analysis has shown that this species contains ibotenic acid and muscimol, the same toxic components found in A. muscaria, but no muscarine or tryptamine derivatives have been found.

Taxonomy and naming

Amanita regalis was first described as Agaricus muscarius ß regalis by Elias Magnus Fries in his Systema Mycologicum, published in 1821.[2] In 1887, Pier Andrea Saccardo treated it as a variety of Amanita muscaria.[3] Edmund Michael, in 1903, became the first to consider it a distinct species.[4] In 1941, Jean-Edouard Gilbert suggested a complete reorganization of the genus Amanita in his world monograph of the genus, and moved it to Amanitaria as A. muscaria var. regalis.[5] In his original (1949) version of Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy, Rolf Singer considered it a subspecies of A. muscaria, but noted that it may be regarded as a separate species; in the fourth edition (1986), he listed it as a distinct species.[6] A. regalis is classified in a section of Amanita within the genus, a grouping of related Amanitas that have a ring on the stem (or remnants thereof), and a bulb at the base of it.[7] More recently, a Japanese group studied the biogeography of A. muscaria and related species, and, using molecular phylogenetic analysis, concluded that the taxon should be considered a grouping of A. muscaria, rather than a distinct species.[8] However, as of 2012, both Index Fungorum and MycoBank list the taxon as Amanita regalis.[1][9]

The species has been called by several vernacular names, including the "royal fly agaric",[10] the "king of Sweden Amanita",[11] the "brown fly agaric", or the king fly agaric.[12] In France it is known as Amanite royale,[13] while in Germany it is Königsfliegenpilz.[14] The specific epithet is derived from the Latin word regalis, meaning "royal".[15] In 2000, it was selected by the German Mycological Society as "Mushroom of the Year".[10]

Description

This young specimen shows the characteristic color, cap warts, and stem that are typical of this species. An immature fruit body can be seen to the right.

Like all Amanita species, the bulk of the organism lies beneath the ground as a symbiotic partner to certain species of trees. The fruit body of the fungus is a reproductive structure that appears when appropriate environmental conditions of moisture, temperature, and nutrient availability are met. The cap of A. regalis is 10 to 25 cm (3.9 to 9.8 in) broad, and, depending on the stage of its development, can range in shape from spherical to convex to somewhat flattened. The color is yellowish brown, and it is densely covered with yellowish to light ochraceous scabby warts, which are arranged in almost regular concentric rings.[16] The rings are a remnant of the volva left behind during expansion of the young fruit body. The cap is fleshy and when mature has grooves on the margin, which can extend 1.5 to 2 cm (0.6 to 0.8 in). The cap cuticle may be separated from the cap by peeling, to almost the center.

The gills are crowded close together, free from attachment to the stem, and white with a creamy yellow tinge. The edges of the gills are floccose, meaning they have tufts of soft wooly hairs—another volval remnant. The stem of a mature individual is typically between 10 and 14 cm (3.9 and 5.5 in) long and 1.5 to 2 cm (0.6 to 0.8 in) wide,[17] and spreads at the base into a bulb ornamented with 2–4 rings of small squamulose, lemon or ochre-yellow warts. The entire stem and ring are not pure white but have a faint yellowish tinge. The flesh is whitish, faintly yellowish in the stem, and golden yellow under the cuticle of the cap. It does not change color in air, and has an insignificant taste and smell.[16]

Microscopic features

The spores are broadly ellipsoid to roughly spherical, hyaline (translucent), smooth, and have dimensions of 9–12 by 7–8 µm. They are non-amyloid, meaning that they do not absorb iodine when stained with Melzer's reagent.[16] The spore-producing cells, the basidia, are club-shaped, measure 38–46 by 3–13 µm, and have clamps at their bases.[18]

Similar species

Amanita pantherina (top) and Amanita rubescens (bottom) are lookalike species.

Amanita regalis is easily distinguished from A. muscaria by the absence of any red color in the cap, and the yellow patches on the stem. If it is a form that has a pale-colored, yellowish-brown cap, Amanita regalis may be confused with the blusher (Amanita rubescens, edible). The latter species can be identified by the flesh-colored tinge it stains when cut or bruised, and also by the color of the flesh underneath the cuticle: A. regalis is yellowish while A. rubescens is white. Amanita pantherina has a similar color, but has white flesh below the cap cuticle, and a cup-shaped bulb with distinct margins around the edge.[17]

Habitat and distribution

Amanita regalis is a rare species typically found growing on the ground in mountainous forests, both deciduous and coniferous.[8] It is a mycorrhizal fungus, and exists in a symbiotic relationship with certain tree species. The system of fine below-ground threads, the mycelium, envelopes the roots of the trees and supplies them with needed minerals, trace elements and water from the soil, while the tree, in turn, supplies the fungus with food from its own supply, which it produces through photosynthesis. A. regalis has been shown experimentally to form mycorrhiza with birch, Scots pine, Mountain pine, and Norway spruce.[19][20] Fruit bodies have been reported to grow in fairy rings.[21]

In Europe it is more common in northern than south Europe, and it has not been reported from south and west Europe.[16] In addition to being common in Scandinavian countries,[17] it has been collected in Germany,[22] Hungary,[23] Latvia,[12] Russia,[24] Slovakia,[25] and Korea.[26] In North America, its distribution is restricted to Alaska,[18] where it is usually found above the tree line.[11]

Toxicity

Ibotenic acid
Muscimol

Amanita regalis is poisonous. A case of poisoning was reported from Finland, where three individuals believed they had consumed the edible parasol mushroom Macrolepiota procera. The symptoms of poisoning, which began 1–2 hours after ingestion of the mushrooms, were gastrointestinal—nausea and heavy vomiting. Two had central nervous system manifestations and cholinergic symptoms, including hallucinations, confusion, or loss of consciousness as well as profuse salivation, or sweating. All three individuals recovered within 4–24 hours without any damage to liver, kidneys or the central nervous system. As this incident demonstrates, cooking the mushrooms does not completely neutralize the toxic components of Amanita regalis.[27] Chemical analysis has shown that this species contains ibotenic acid and muscimol,[17] the same toxic constituents of the ordinary fly agaric.[28] However, no muscarine or tryptamine derivatives have been found.[10]

Amanita regalis has the ability to bioaccumulate the heavy metal vanadium, a phenomenon first reported in Amanita muscaria in 1931.[29] A field study of Scandinavian specimens found vanadium contents ranging from 38 to 169 mg of vanadium per kg of dry mushroom (average of 119 mg/kg).[30] For comparison, the vanadium concentration in most other mushrooms is typically less than 2 mg/kg.[31]

See also

Footnotes

  1. ^ a b "Amanita regalis (Fr.) Michael". Species Fungorum . CAB International. Retrieved 2012-01-22.
  2. ^ Fries EM. (1821). Systema Mycologicum (in Latin). Vol. 1. Lund, Sweden: Ex Officina Berlingiana. p. 16.
  3. ^ Saccardo PA. (1887). "Sylloge Hymenomycetum, Vol. I. Agaricineae". Sylloge Fungorum (in Latin). 5: 13.
  4. ^ Michael E. (1903). Führer für Pilzfreunde. Die am häufigsten vorkommenden essbaren, verdächtigen und giftigen Pilze (in German). p. pl. 75.
  5. ^ Gilbert E-J. (1940). "The Amanitas of the world". Iconographia mycologica. 27 (Suppl. 1): 77.
  6. ^ Singer R. (1986). The Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy (4th ed.). Königstein im Taunus, Germany: Koeltz Scientific Books. p. 450. ISBN 3874292541.
  7. ^ Jenkins (1986), p. 16.
  8. ^ a b Oda T, Tanaka C, Tsuda M. (2004). "Molecular phylogeny and biogeography of the widely distributed Amanita species, A. muscaria and A. pantherina". Mycological Research. 108 (8): 885–96. doi:10.1017/S0953756204000620.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  9. ^ "Amanita regalis (Fr.) Michael 1904". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Retrieved 2012-01-22.
  10. ^ a b c Stijve T. (2000). "De koningsvliegezwam, Amanita regalis (Fr.) Michael, de paddestoel van het jaar 2000". AMK Mededelingen (in Dutch) (2): 46–51. ISSN 0771-9884. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  11. ^ a b Tulloss RE. "Amanita regalis (Fr.) Michael". Amanita studies. Retrieved 2010-01-03. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |work= (help)
  12. ^ a b Mukins E, Mukina Z. "Amanita regalis". Latvijas sēnes [Fungi of Latvia]. Retrieved 2010-01-03.
  13. ^ Danel V, Barriot P. (1999). Intoxications aiguës en réanimation (in French) (2 ed.). Arnette. p. 539. ISBN 9782718409771.
  14. ^ Terpes W, Täufel A, Tunger L, Zobel M. (2005). Lebensmittel-Lexikon (in German). Behr. p. 707. ISBN 3899471652.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  15. ^ Manser MH, Turton ND. (1999). Advanced Learners' Dictionary (Wordsworth Reference). Wordsworth Editions Ltd. p. 584. ISBN 1853267635.
  16. ^ a b c d Pilát A. (1961). Mushrooms and other Fungi. London, UK: Peter Nevill. p. 148.
  17. ^ a b c d Bresinsky A, Besl H. (1989). A Colour Atlas of Poisonous Fungi: A Handbook for Pharmacists, Doctors, and Biologists. London, UK: Manson Publishing. pp. 105–6. ISBN 0723415765.
  18. ^ a b Jenkins (1986), p. 38.
  19. ^ Maijala P, Fagerstedt KV, Raudaskoski M. (1991). "Detection of extracellular cellulolytic and proteolytic activity in ectomycorrhizal fungi and Heterobasidion annosum (Fr.) Bref". New Phytologist. 117 (4): 643–8. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.1991.tb00968.x. JSTOR 2557755.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. ^ Modess O. (1939). "Experimental studies in Hymenomycetes and Gasteromycetes as mycorrhiza-producers on Pine and Spruce (Preliminary note)". Svensk Botanisk Tidskrift (in German). 33: 91–3.
  21. ^ Dietrich W, Krause E. (2010). "Pilzfunde im Mittleren Erzgebirge". Boletus (in German). 32 (1): 13–25. ISSN 0232-4598. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  22. ^ Dorfelt H, Bresinsky A. (2003). "Distribution and ecology of selected Macromycetes in Germany". Zeitschrift für Mykologie. 69 (2): 177–286. ISSN 0170-110X.
  23. ^ Vasas G, Locsmandi C, Albert L. (1991). "Interesting mushrooms from Hungary III. Basidiomycetes Agaricales". Annales Historico-Naturales Musei Nationalis Hungarici (in Hungarian). 83: 87–9. ISSN 0521-4726.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  24. ^ Kirikova OS. (2006). "Agaricoid fungi of the National Park "Russky Sever" (Vologda Region). I". Mikologiya i Fitopatologiya (in Russian). 40 (5): 377–86. ISSN 0026-3648.
  25. ^ Lizon P. (1989). "Maps of distribution of fungi in Slovakia Czechoslovakia 1". Zbornik Slovenskeho Narodneho Muzea Prirodne Vedy. 35: 17–28. ISSN 0374-1168.
  26. ^ Park SS, Cho D-H. (1992). "The mycoflora of higher fungi in Mt. Paekdu and adjacent areas I". Korean Journal of Mycology. 20 (1): 11–28. ISSN 0253-651x. {{cite journal}}: Check |issn= value (help)
  27. ^ Elonen E, Tarssanen L, Härkönen M. (1979). "Poisoning with brown fly agaric Amanita regalis". Acta Medica Scandinavica. 205 (1–2): 121–3. doi:10.1111/j.0954-6820.1979.tb06016.x. PMID 760400.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  28. ^ Brvar M., Mozina M, Bunc M. (2006). "Prolonged psychosis after Amanita muscaria ingestion". Wiener klinische Wochenschrift. 118 (9–10): 294–7. doi:10.1007/s00508-006-0581-6. PMID 16810488.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  29. ^ Ter Meulen EV. (1931). "Sur la repartition de molybdene dans la nature". Recueil des Travaux Chimiques des Pays-Bas (in French). 50 (6): 491–504. doi:10.1002/recl.19310500603.
  30. ^ Meisch H-U, Reinle W, Schmitt JA. (1979). "High vanadium content in mushrooms is not restricted to the Fly Agaric (Amanita muscaria)". Naturwissenschaften. 66 (12): 620–1. doi:10.1007/BF00405131. ISSN 0028-1042.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  31. ^ Sigel A, Sigel H. (1995). Vanadium and its Role in Life. New York, New York: M. Dekker. p. 408. ISBN 0824793838.

Cited text

  • Jenkins DB. (1986). Amanita of North America. Eureka, California: Mad River Press. ISBN 0916422550.

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