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The fluoride content of made tea depends on the picking method and fluoride content of the soil in which it is grown; tea plants absorb this element at a greater rate than other plants. Care in the choice of the location where the plant is grown may reduce the risk.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Accumulation of Fluoride and Aluminium Related to Different Varieties of Tea Plant | author = Jianyun Ruan and Ming H. Wong | journal = Environmental Geochemistry and Health | volume = 23 | issue = 1 | pages = 53–63 | year = 2001 | url = | doi = 10.1023/A:1011082608631}}</ref> It is speculated that hand-picked tea would contain less fluoride than machine-harvested tea, because there is a much lower chance of harvesting older leaves during the harvest process. A 2013 British study of 38 teas found that cheaper UK supermarket tea blends had the highest levels of fluoride with about 580&nbsp;mg per kilogram, green teas averaged about 397&nbsp;mg per kg and pure blends about 132&nbsp;mg per kg. The researchers suggested that economy teas may use older leaves which contain more fluoride. They calculated a person drinking a litre of economy tea per day would consume about 4&nbsp;mg of fluoride, the maximum recommended amount of fluoride per day but below the maximum tolerable amount of 10&nbsp;mg fluoride per day.<ref>(25 July 2013) [http://www.nhs.uk/news/2013/07July/Pages/do-fluoride-levels-in-cheap-tea-pose-a-health-risk.aspx Do fluoride levels in cheap tea pose a health risk?] British National Health Service "Choices, Retrieved 26 July 2013</ref>
The fluoride content of made tea depends on the picking method and fluoride content of the soil in which it is grown; tea plants absorb this element at a greater rate than other plants. Care in the choice of the location where the plant is grown may reduce the risk.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Accumulation of Fluoride and Aluminium Related to Different Varieties of Tea Plant | author = Jianyun Ruan and Ming H. Wong | journal = Environmental Geochemistry and Health | volume = 23 | issue = 1 | pages = 53–63 | year = 2001 | url = | doi = 10.1023/A:1011082608631}}</ref> It is speculated that hand-picked tea would contain less fluoride than machine-harvested tea, because there is a much lower chance of harvesting older leaves during the harvest process. A 2013 British study of 38 teas found that cheaper UK supermarket tea blends had the highest levels of fluoride with about 580&nbsp;mg per kilogram, green teas averaged about 397&nbsp;mg per kg and pure blends about 132&nbsp;mg per kg. The researchers suggested that economy teas may use older leaves which contain more fluoride. They calculated a person drinking a litre of economy tea per day would consume about 4&nbsp;mg of fluoride, the maximum recommended amount of fluoride per day but below the maximum tolerable amount of 10&nbsp;mg fluoride per day.<ref>(25 July 2013) [http://www.nhs.uk/news/2013/07July/Pages/do-fluoride-levels-in-cheap-tea-pose-a-health-risk.aspx Do fluoride levels in cheap tea pose a health risk?] British National Health Service "Choices, Retrieved 26 July 2013</ref>

==Fracture risk==
A 2014 [[meta-analysis]] of nine observational studies concluded that tea consumption may not be associated with the risk of [[bone fracture]] including [[hip fracture]]s or fractures of the [[humerus]] in men or women.<ref name="Chen2014">{{cite journal|author=Chen B, Shi HF, Wu SC|title=Tea consumption didn't modify the risk of fracture: a dose-response meta-analysis of observational studies|journal=Diagn Pathol|volume=9|issue=|pages=44|date=March 2014|pmid=24588938|pmc=4017777|doi=10.1186/1746-1596-9-44}}</ref>


== Oxalates ==
== Oxalates ==

Revision as of 00:27, 1 January 2015

This article addresses effects only of tea made from the plant Camellia sinensis, including black tea, oolong tea, green tea, and white tea. It does not address effects of other plant infusions that might be called "tea", including what are sometimes called "herbal tea".

Information about the different varieties of tea, its impact on people, Australia, 1912

According to legend, the health effects of tea have been examined ever since the first infusions of Camellia sinensis about 4700 years ago in China. Emperor Shennong claimed in The Divine Farmer's Herb-Root Classic that Camellia sinensis infusions were useful for treating a variety of disease conditions.[1]

Historically before modern safe drinking water, it was thought to be beneficial to make tea with boiled water which may reduce microorganisms, but over-boiling may actually increase the amount of consumed contaminants.[2]

Aluminum and heavy metals

Further information: Aluminum#Health concerns

Tea drinking accounts for a high proportion of aluminum in the human diet.[3] The levels are safe, but there has been some concern that aluminum traces may be associated with Alzheimer's disease. A recent study additionally indicated that some teas contained possibly risky amounts of lead (mostly Chinese) and aluminum (Indian/Sri Lanka blends, China).[4] There is still insufficient evidence to draw firm conclusions on this subject.[5]

Cancer

In 2011, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) reported that there was very little evidence to support the claim that green tea consumption may reduce the risk of breast and prostate cancer.[6]

The US National Cancer Institute reports that in epidemiological studies and the few clinical trials of tea for the prevention of cancer, the results have been inconclusive. The institute "does not recommend for or against the use of tea to reduce the risk of any type of cancer." ... "Inconsistencies in study findings regarding tea and cancer risk may be due to variability in tea preparation, tea consumption, the bioavailability of tea compounds (the amounts that can be absorbed by the body), lifestyle differences, and individual genetic differences."[7] Though there is some positive evidence for risk reduction of breast, prostate, ovarian and endometrial cancers with green tea, it is weak and inconclusive.[8]

A study, published in 2012, suggested that men who drink large quantities of black tea – more than seven cups per day – increase their risk of prostate cancer by 50%.[9] The story was relayed in the media, but according to the National Health Service, "this study had many limitations that call into question the reliability of its results".[10][11]

Fluoride exposure

See also: Fluoride § Toxicology

All tea leaves contain fluoride; however, mature leaves contain as much as 10 to 20 times the fluoride levels of young leaves from the same plant.[12][13][14][15][16][17] Although low concentrations of fluoride are maintained in many public water supplies for dental health, very high fluoride intake (over 2 mg per day for children, 4 mg adults) increases the risk of osteofluorosis and fractures. There is evidence that over-intake of teas produced using mature leaves (e.g. brick tea) can cause fluorosis in humans.[18][19]

The fluoride content of made tea depends on the picking method and fluoride content of the soil in which it is grown; tea plants absorb this element at a greater rate than other plants. Care in the choice of the location where the plant is grown may reduce the risk.[20] It is speculated that hand-picked tea would contain less fluoride than machine-harvested tea, because there is a much lower chance of harvesting older leaves during the harvest process. A 2013 British study of 38 teas found that cheaper UK supermarket tea blends had the highest levels of fluoride with about 580 mg per kilogram, green teas averaged about 397 mg per kg and pure blends about 132 mg per kg. The researchers suggested that economy teas may use older leaves which contain more fluoride. They calculated a person drinking a litre of economy tea per day would consume about 4 mg of fluoride, the maximum recommended amount of fluoride per day but below the maximum tolerable amount of 10 mg fluoride per day.[21]

Fracture risk

A 2014 meta-analysis of nine observational studies concluded that tea consumption may not be associated with the risk of bone fracture including hip fractures or fractures of the humerus in men or women.[22]

Oxalates

Tea contains oxalate, overconsumption of which can cause kidney stones, as well as binding with free calcium in the body. The bioavailability of oxalate from tea is low, thus a possible negative effect requires a large intake of tea.[23]

Theanine and caffeine

See also: Health effects of caffeine

Tea also contains theanine and the stimulant caffeine at about 3% of its dry weight, translating to between 30 mg and 90 mg per 8 oz (250 ml) cup depending on type, brand[24] and brewing method.[25] Tea also contains small amounts of theobromine and theophylline.[26] Due in part to modern-day environmental pollution fluoride and aluminium have also been found to occur in tea, with certain types of brick tea made from old leaves and stems having the highest levels. This occurs due to the tea plant's high sensitivity to and absorption of environmental pollutants.[27] Dry tea has more caffeine by weight than dry coffee; nevertheless, more dry coffee than dry tea is used in typical drink preparations[28]—which results in a cup of brewed tea containing significantly less caffeine than a cup of coffee of the same size.

The caffeine in tea is a mild diuretic. However, the British Dietetic Association has suggested that tea can be used to supplement normal water consumption, and that "the style of tea and coffee and the amounts we drink in the UK are unlikely to have a negative effect [on hydration]".[29]

Weight loss

Green tea consumption has no meaningful effect in aiding weight loss.[8]

See also

References

  1. ^ N. H. Woodward, Teas of the World (1980), as cited in D. A. Balentine, M. E. Harbowy, H. N. Graham, Tea: The Plant and Its Manufacture; Chemistry and Consumption of the Beverage in Caffeine ed G. Spiller (1998)
  2. ^ "Residues and contaminants in tea and tea infusions: a review". Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess. 23 (September): 1–11. 2014. doi:10.1080/19440049.2014.958575. PMID 25164107. {{cite journal}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |authors= (help)
  3. ^ Streeta R, Drábeka O, Szákováb J, Mládkováa L (2007). "Total content and speciation of aluminium in tea leaves and tea infusions". Food Chemistry. 104 (4): 1662–1669. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.03.019.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  4. ^ "The Benefits and Risks of Consuming Brewed Tea: Beware of Toxic Element Contamination".
  5. ^ Karak T, Bhagat RM (2010). "Trace elements in tea leaves, made tea and tea infusion: A review". Food Research International (Review). 43 (9): 2234–2252. doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2010.08.010.
  6. ^ Food and Drug Administration (24 February 2011). "Summary of Qualified Health Claims Subject to Enforcement Discretion". Retrieved 9 October 2014.
  7. ^ National Cancer Institute (Reviewed 17 November 2010). "Tea and Cancer Prevention: Strengths and Limits of the Evidence". Retrieved 20 March 2012. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  8. ^ a b Johnson R, Bryant S, Huntley AL (2012). "Green tea and green tea catechin extracts: an overview of the clinical evidence". Maturitas (Review). 73 (4): 280–7. doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2012.08.008. PMID 22986087. Green tea consumption does help reduce body weight and aid weight management as shown in short term RCTs (12 weeks) but not to a clinically relevant level. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  9. ^ Kashif Shafiquea, Philip McLooneb, Khaver Qureshic, Hing Leungd, Carole Harta & David S. Morrisonb. "Tea Consumption and the Risk of Overall and Grade Specific Prostate Cancer: A Large Prospective Cohort Study of Scottish Men". Nutrition and Cancer Volume 64, Issue 6, 2012: 790–797. doi:10.1080/01635581.2012.690063. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. ^ Brazian. "Seven cups of tea a day 'ups prostate cancer risk'". NHS Choices. Retrieved 1 December 2012.
  11. ^ Anekew, Lilian. "Drinking tea linked to prostate cancer - but study is flawed". BMJ. Retrieved 1 December 2012.
  12. ^ M. H. Wong, K. F. Fung and H. P. Carr (2003). "Aluminium and fluoride contents of tea, with emphasis on brick tea and their health implications". Toxicology Letters. 137 (12): 111–120. doi:10.1016/S0378-4274(02)00385-5. PMID 12505437.
  13. ^ Yi Lu, Wen-Fei Guo, and Xian-Qiang Yang (2004). "Fluoride Content in Tea and Its Relationship with Tea Quality". J. Agric. Food Chem. 52 (14): 4472–4476. doi:10.1021/jf0308354+S0021-8561(03)00835-5. PMID 15237954.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. ^ K. F. Fung, Z. Q. Zhang1, J. W. C. Wong and M. H. Wong (1999). "Fluoride contents in tea and soil from tea plantations and the release of fluoride into tea liquor during infusion". Environmental Pollution. 104 (2): 197–205. doi:10.1016/S0269-7491(98)00187-0.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  15. ^ Lung SC, Cheng HW, Fu CB (2008). "Potential exposure and risk of fluoride intakes from tea drinks produced in Taiwan". J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol. 18 (2): 158–66. doi:10.1038/sj.jes.7500574. PMID 17410113.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  16. ^ Malinowska E, Inkielewicz I, Czarnowski W, Szefer P (2008). "Assessment of fluoride concentration and daily intake by human from tea and herbal infusions". Food Chem. Toxicol. 46 (3): 1055–61. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2007.10.039. PMID 18078704.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  17. ^ "Calls for FDA to introduce tea fluoride safety standard". Foodnavigator-usa.com. Retrieved 4 August 2011.
  18. ^ Fung KF and MH Wong (2004) Application of different forms of calcium to tea soil to prevent aluminium and fluorine accumulation. J Sci Food Agric 84:1469–1477
  19. ^ Fawell, J (2006). 92 4 156319 2. WHO. ISBN 92 4 156319 2.
  20. ^ Jianyun Ruan and Ming H. Wong (2001). "Accumulation of Fluoride and Aluminium Related to Different Varieties of Tea Plant". Environmental Geochemistry and Health. 23 (1): 53–63. doi:10.1023/A:1011082608631.
  21. ^ (25 July 2013) Do fluoride levels in cheap tea pose a health risk? British National Health Service "Choices, Retrieved 26 July 2013
  22. ^ Chen B, Shi HF, Wu SC (March 2014). "Tea consumption didn't modify the risk of fracture: a dose-response meta-analysis of observational studies". Diagn Pathol. 9: 44. doi:10.1186/1746-1596-9-44. PMC 4017777. PMID 24588938.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  23. ^ Michael Liebman and Shawnna Murphy (2007). "Low oxalate bioavailability from black tea". Nutrition Research. 27 (5): 273–278h. doi:10.1016/j.nutres.2007.04.004.
  24. ^ Bennett Alan Weinberg and Bonnie K. Bealer (2001). The World of Caffeine: The Science and Culture of the World's Most Popular Drug. Routledge. p. 228. ISBN 0-415-92722-6. Retrieved 20 September 2008.
  25. ^ M. B. Hicks, Y-H. P. Hsieh, L. N. Bell, Tea preparation and its influence on methylxanthine concentration, Food Research International 29(3-4) 325-330 (1996)
  26. ^ Graham H. N.; Green tea composition, consumption, and polyphenol chemistry; Preventive Medicine 21(3):334-50 (1992)
  27. ^ "Environmental Pollution: Fluoride contents in tea and soil from tea plantations and the release of fluoride into tea liquor during infusion". ScienceDirect. Retrieved 15 July 2009.
  28. ^ "Caffeine and Tea Information". Stash Tea. Retrieved 15 July 2009.
  29. ^ BDA Supports Dehydration Awareness Week with some Handy Tips. British Dietetic Association press release, June 2011.

External links

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