Reproductive coercion: Difference between revisions
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===Prevalence in teen pregnancy=== |
===Prevalence in teen pregnancy=== |
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Teenage girls in physically violent relationships are 3.5 times more likely to become pregnant and are 2.8 times more likely to fear the possible consequences of negotiating condom use than non-abused girls. They are also half as likely to use condoms consistently compared to non-abused girls, and teenage boys perpetrating dating violence are also less likely to use condoms.<ref name=FVPF /> There are actions girls and women can take if their contraception has been [[Non-consensual condom removal|stealthed]] or sabotaged:<ref>{{cite news|last1=Brocail|first1=McKinzie | name-list-format = vanc |title=Stealthing & Sabotaging Condoms: What You Need To Know|url=https://www.stdcheck.com/blog/stealthing-legal-what-to-do-after/|access-date=21 May 2017|work=STDcheck|date=10 May 2017|language=en}}</ref> In the US, Plan B (the morning after pill) can be acquired by |
Teenage girls in physically violent relationships are 3.5 times more likely to become pregnant and are 2.8 times more likely to fear the possible consequences of negotiating condom use than non-abused girls. They are also half as likely to use condoms consistently compared to non-abused girls, and teenage boys perpetrating dating violence are also less likely to use condoms.<ref name=FVPF /> There are actions girls and women can take if their contraception has been [[Non-consensual condom removal|stealthed]] or sabotaged:<ref>{{cite news|last1=Brocail|first1=McKinzie | name-list-format = vanc |title=Stealthing & Sabotaging Condoms: What You Need To Know|url=https://www.stdcheck.com/blog/stealthing-legal-what-to-do-after/|access-date=21 May 2017|work=STDcheck|date=10 May 2017|language=en}}</ref> In the US, levonorgestrel (LNG) Plan B One Step and other generics (the morning after pill) can be acquired by persons of any age<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Haeger|first=Kristin O.|last2=Lamme|first2=Jacqueline|last3=Cleland|first3=Kelly|date=2018|title=State of emergency contraception in the U.S., 2018|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30202545|journal=Contraception and Reproductive Medicine|volume=3|pages=20|doi=10.1186/s40834-018-0067-8|issn=2055-7426|pmc=6123910|pmid=30202545}}</ref> When taken within 72 hours, it can help prevent an unwanted pregnancy. Other options for emergency contraception in the US include ulipristal acetate (available with a prescription) taken within 5 days, and the insertion of a copper IUD within 5 days.<ref name=":0" />. The copper IUD is the most effective option for emergency contraception, followed by ulipristal, followed by LNG.<ref name=":0" /> |
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Teenage mothers are nearly twice as likely to have a repeat pregnancy within 2 years if they experienced abuse within three months after delivery.<ref name=FVPF /> |
Teenage mothers are nearly twice as likely to have a repeat pregnancy within 2 years if they experienced abuse within three months after delivery.<ref name=FVPF /> |
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Revision as of 21:43, 10 August 2019
Reproductive coercion (also called coerced reproduction) is threats or acts of violence against a partner's reproductive health or reproductive decision-making and is a collection of behaviors intended to pressure or coerce a partner into initiating, keeping, or terminating a pregnancy.[1] Reproductive coercion is a form of domestic violence, also known as intimate partner violence, where behavior concerning reproductive health is used to maintain power, control, and domination within a relationship and over a partner through an unwanted pregnancy. It is considered a serious public health issue.[1][2] This reproductive control is highly correlated to unintended pregnancy.[3]
The most common forms of reproductive coercion are pregnancy pressure, pregnancy coercion, and birth control sabotage; they can exist independently or occur simultaneously. Not complying with the partner's wishes may result in the partner acting out violently.[1]
Pregnancy pressure
Pregnancy pressure is enacted by a woman's sexual partner when he pressures her into having unprotected sex in order to become pregnant, or into continuing or terminating the pregnancy.[1] It might involve pregnancy coercion, which are threats or acts of violence if the woman does not comply with the perpetrator's demands or wishes.[2][4] [5]
Reproductive pressure behaviors may result in several unintended pregnancies that are then followed by multiple coerced abortions. Women who seek abortions are nearly three times as likely to have experienced reproductive pressure by a partner in the past year, compared to women continuing their pregnancies.[2] A Guttmacher Institute policy analysis states that forcing a woman to terminate a pregnancy she wants or to continue a pregnancy she does not want violates the basic human right of her reproductive health.[6]
Pregnancy pressure may also be exerted by a woman with a strong desire to have children, either to raise them or to influence a man to maintain a relationship with her or agree to marriage. She may try to pressure a man to get her pregnant, even when he is reluctant to become a father and incur the responsibilities of fatherhood.
Birth control sabotage
Reproductive coercion can take the form of birth control sabotage, either as verbal sabotage, behavioral sabotage, and/or acts as an active interference with contraceptive methods. Direct actions are taken to ensure the failure of birth control (such as poking holes in or breaking condoms) or complete removal of contraception (such as flushing birth control pills down the toilet or removing contraceptive rings or patches from the body). Partners can also discourage or outright forbid women from using family planning or force them into having unprotected sex.[1][2]
Birth control sabotage is frequently associated with physical or sexual violence, and is a contributor to high pregnancy rates—especially teenage pregnancy rates—among abused, disadvantaged women and teenagers.[2]
Studies on the birth control sabotage performed by males against female partners have indicated a strong correlation between domestic violence and birth control sabotage. These studies have identified two main classes of the phenomenon:[7]
- Verbal sabotage—verbal or emotional pressure not to use birth control or to become pregnant.
- Behavioral sabotage—the use of force to have unprotected sexual intercourse or not to use birth control.
14% of surveyed young mothers reported undergoing birth control sabotage.[7] A separate study found that 66% of teen mothers on public assistance who had recently experienced intimate partner violence disclosed birth control sabotage by a dating partner. When women did try to negotiate condom use with their abusive partners, 32% said they were verbally threatened, 21% reported physical abuse, and 14% said their partners threatened abandonment.[2]
Gender and sexual power dynamics and coercion associated with sexual power dynamics are both linked to condom nonuse.[8] Even women with high STI knowledge are more likely to use condoms inconsistently than women with low STI knowledge when there is a high level of fear for abuse.[2]
Reproductive coercion can also occur when a woman sabotages birth control in order to get pregnant without her partner's knowledge or consent. Once she becomes pregnant, she may proceed to take her pregnancy to term, thus forcing her partner to become the parent of a child, pay child support, and compel him to do other things, often enforced by law.[9] She may also mislead her partner into a belief that her pregnancy was due to him, even if it was due to someone else, and thus deceive him into accepting parental responsibilities.[10]
Prevalence
Domestic violence, also called "intimate partner violence", is monitored by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Their survey on domestic violence measures five types of domestic violence, including control of reproductive health, citing pregnancy pressure and birth control sabotage specifically.[11] While research remains fragmentary, women in abusive relationships appear to be at higher risk of reproductive coercion and unintended pregnancies.[12]
The Center for Disease Control found that:[11]
- approximately 8.6% (or an estimated 10.3 million) of women in the United States reported ever having an intimate partner who tried to get them pregnant when they did not want to, or refused to use a condom, with 4.8% having had an intimate partner who tried to get them pregnant when they did not want to, and 6.7% having had an intimate partner who refused to wear a condom;
- approximately 10.4% (or an estimated 11.7 million) of men in the United States reported ever having an intimate partner who tried to get pregnant when they did not want to or tried to stop them from using birth control, with 8.7% having had an intimate partner who tried to get pregnant when they did not want to or tried to stop them from using birth control and 3.8% having had an intimate partner who refused to wear a condom.
Prevalence in teen pregnancy
Teenage girls in physically violent relationships are 3.5 times more likely to become pregnant and are 2.8 times more likely to fear the possible consequences of negotiating condom use than non-abused girls. They are also half as likely to use condoms consistently compared to non-abused girls, and teenage boys perpetrating dating violence are also less likely to use condoms.[2] There are actions girls and women can take if their contraception has been stealthed or sabotaged:[13] In the US, levonorgestrel (LNG) Plan B One Step and other generics (the morning after pill) can be acquired by persons of any age[14] When taken within 72 hours, it can help prevent an unwanted pregnancy. Other options for emergency contraception in the US include ulipristal acetate (available with a prescription) taken within 5 days, and the insertion of a copper IUD within 5 days.[14]. The copper IUD is the most effective option for emergency contraception, followed by ulipristal, followed by LNG.[14]
Teenage mothers are nearly twice as likely to have a repeat pregnancy within 2 years if they experienced abuse within three months after delivery.[2]
26% of abused teenage girls reported that their boyfriends were trying to get them pregnant.[15]
Assessment and intervention
A typical assessment of women's reproductive health includes the following questions:[2]
- Has a current or former partner not let you use birth control, destroyed your birth control, or refused to wear a condom?
- Has your partner ever tried to get you pregnant when you didn't want to be?
- Has your partner ever forced you to have an abortion or caused you to have a miscarriage?
- Has your partner ever purposely given you an STD?
- Are you worried you might be pregnant?[2]
Due to the findings related to reproductive coercion and its prevalence, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists has called for its members to be vigilant for reproductive coercion.[1] Clinical implications discovered through case studies are the following: to assess for reproductive coercion as a part of a routine family planning care; to assess reproductive coercion before discussing contraceptive options; to offer discreet birth control methods; and to assess safety.[2] Some believe that all reproductive health care settings should have a written protocol for identifying and responding to domestic violence that includes reproductive coercion, and agencies that already have a protocol should be reviewed and expanded to address reproductive coercion.[2]
Law
In Mexico, the law permits abortion, which is otherwise illegal, for women who have been coerced into pregnancy.[16]
See also
References
- ^ a b c d e f "ACOG Committee opinion no. 554: reproductive and sexual coercion". Obstetrics and Gynecology. 121 (2 Pt 1). LWW: 411–5. February 2013. doi:10.1097/01.AOG.0000426427.79586.3b. PMID 23344307.
{{cite journal}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help)CS1 maint: postscript (link) - ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Chamberlain, Linda; Levenson, Rebecca (2010). "Reproductive Health and Partner Violence Guidelines: An Integrated Response to Intimate Partner Violence and Reproductive Coercion" (PDF). San Francisco: Family Violence Prevention Fund.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|name-list-format=ignored (|name-list-style=suggested) (help) - ^ Coker AL (April 2007). "Does physical intimate partner violence affect sexual health? A systematic review". Trauma, Violence & Abuse. 8 (2). Sage: 149–77. doi:10.1177/1524838007301162. PMID 17545572.
{{cite journal}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help)CS1 maint: postscript (link) - ^ Sueda, Alexandra. "Contraceptive Coercion" (PDF). Department of Ob/Gyn, Kaiser Permanente. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 January 2012.
{{cite web}}:|archive-date=/|archive-url=timestamp mismatch; 17 May 2016 suggested (help); Unknown parameter|dead-url=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|name-list-format=ignored (|name-list-style=suggested) (help) - ^ Miller E, Silverman JG (September 2010). "Reproductive coercion and partner violence: implications for clinical assessment of unintended pregnancy". Expert Review of Obstetrics & Gynecology. 5 (5): 511–515. doi:10.1586/eog.10.44. PMC 3282154. PMID 22355296.
- ^ Barot, Sneha (Fall 2012). "Governmental coercion in reproductive decision making: see it both ways". Guttmacher Policy Review. 15 (4). Guttmacher Institute.
{{cite journal}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help); Unknown parameter|name-list-format=ignored (|name-list-style=suggested) (help) - ^ a b Domestic Violence and Birth Control Sabotage: A Report from the Teen Parent Project. Chicago: Center for Impact Research, 2000.
- ^ Hendriksen ES, Pettifor A, Lee SJ, Coates TJ, Rees HV (July 2007). "Predictors of condom use among young adults in South Africa: the Reproductive Health and HIV Research Unit National Youth Survey". American Journal of Public Health. 97 (7): 1241–8. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2006.086009. PMC 1913066. PMID 17538062.
- ^ Shrage, Laurie (12 June 2013). "Is Forced Fatherhood Fair?". Opinionator. The New York Times. Retrieved 27 January 2019.
- ^ Fine, Lorne (8 August 2012). "I Am Not The Biological Parent. Do I Still Have To Pay Support?". Eligible Magazine. Retrieved 27 January 2019.
- ^ a b Black, Michele C.; Basile, Kathleen C.; Breiding, Matthew J.; Smith, Sharon G.; Walters, Mikel L.; Merrick, Melissa T.; Chen, Jieru; Stevens, Mark R. (2011). The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS) (PDF). Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: 48.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|name-list-format=ignored (|name-list-style=suggested) (help) - ^ Paterno MT, Jordan ET (March 2012). "A review of factors associated with unprotected sex among adult women in the United States". Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic, and Neonatal Nursing. 41 (2): 258–74. doi:10.1111/j.1552-6909.2011.01334.x. PMID 22376055.
- ^ Brocail, McKinzie (10 May 2017). "Stealthing & Sabotaging Condoms: What You Need To Know". STDcheck. Retrieved 21 May 2017.
{{cite news}}: Unknown parameter|name-list-format=ignored (|name-list-style=suggested) (help) - ^ a b c Haeger, Kristin O.; Lamme, Jacqueline; Cleland, Kelly (2018). "State of emergency contraception in the U.S., 2018". Contraception and Reproductive Medicine. 3: 20. doi:10.1186/s40834-018-0067-8. ISSN 2055-7426. PMC 6123910. PMID 30202545.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ Futures Without Violence. Feb 27, 2012 Teen Dating Violence and Reproductive Coercion: Innovative Opportunities for Programs and Partnerships
- ^ Cusack, Carmen M. (2011). "Consensual Insemination, An Analysis of Social Deviance within Gender, Family, or the Home" (PDF). Journal of Law & Social Deviance. 2: 158.
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