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{{short description|A volcanic arc}}
{{short description|A volcanic arc}}
[[File:Indonesia 2002 CIA map.png|thumb|500x500px|A geographic view of the Sunda Arc]]
[[File:Indonesia 2002 CIA map.png|thumb|400x400px|A geographic view of the Sunda Arc]]
{{Infobox islands|name=Sunda Arc|coordinates=7.1510° S, 110.1403° E|location=[[Indonesia]]|major_islands=[[Sumatra]], [[Java]], [[Nusa Tenggara]]|additional_info='''Tectonic''' - [[Indo-Australian Plate]] and [[Eurasia Plate]]
{{Infobox islands|name=Sunda Arc|coordinates=7.1510° S, 110.1403° E|location=[[Indonesia]]|major_islands=[[Sumatra]], [[Java]], [[Nusa Tenggara]]|additional_info='''Tectonic''' - [[Indo-Australian Plate]] and [[Eurasia Plate]]
<br /> '''Major Volcanoes''' - [[Merapi]], [[Krakatoa]], [[Mount Sinabung]], [[Semeru]]}}
<br /> '''Major Volcanoes''' - [[Merapi]], [[Krakatoa]], [[Mount Sinabung]], [[Semeru]]}}
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== Formation and Geologic Setting ==
== Formation and Geologic Setting ==
Mid-oceanic ridge basalts [[Basalt|(MORB)]] form most of the oceanic basin south of Sunda, according to geodynamic studies.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Hall|first=Robert|date=2002-04-01|title=Cenozoic geological and plate tectonic evolution of SE Asia and the SW Pacific: computer-based reconstructions, model and animations|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1367912001000694|journal=Journal of Asian Earth Sciences|series=Cenozoic geological and plate tectonic evolution of SE Asia and the SW Pacific: Computer-based reconstructions, model and animations (including CD-ROM)|language=en|volume=20|issue=4|pages=353–431|doi=10.1016/S1367-9120(01)00069-4|issn=1367-9120}}</ref> These plates began to converge in the Early [[Miocene Era|Miocene]]<ref name=":6" />. The [[Indo-Australian Plate]] is subducting beneath the [[Eurasian Plate]] with the dip angle of 49-56 degrees.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Syracuse|first=Ellen M.|last2=Abers|first2=Geoffrey A.|date=2006-05|title=Global compilation of variations in slab depth beneath arc volcanoes and implications: ARC VOLCANO SLAB DEPTH|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2005GC001045|journal=Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems|language=en|volume=7|issue=5|pages=n/a–n/a|doi=10.1029/2005GC001045}}</ref> The slab subducting under Java is continuous down to the lower mantle. However, the slab appears to beak apart under [[Sumatra|Sumatra Island]]''.''<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pesicek|first=J. D.|last2=Thurber|first2=C. H.|last3=Widiyantoro|first3=S.|last4=Engdahl|first4=E. R.|last5=DeShon|first5=H. R.|date=2008|title=Complex slab subduction beneath northern Sumatra|url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2008GL035262|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|language=en|volume=35|issue=20|doi=10.1029/2008GL035262|issn=1944-8007}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Widiyantoro|first=S.|last2=van der Hilst|first2=R.|date=1996-03-15|title=Structure and Evolution of Lithospheric Slab Beneath the Sunda Arc, Indonesia|url=https://www.sciencemag.org/lookup/doi/10.1126/science.271.5255.1566|journal=Science|language=en|volume=271|issue=5255|pages=1566–1570|doi=10.1126/science.271.5255.1566|issn=0036-8075}}</ref>Earthquake depth records indicate that there is no deep seismic activity in [[Sumatra]], likely due to the age of the subducting complex''.''<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wortel|first=M. J. R.|last2=Vlaar|first2=N. J.|date=1988|title=Subduction zone seismicity and the thermo-mechanical evolution of downgoing lithosphere|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF00874551|journal=Pure and Applied Geophysics PAGEOPH|language=en|volume=128|issue=3-4|pages=625–659|doi=10.1007/BF00874551|issn=0033-4553}}</ref><ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=[[Kirby ]]|first=[[S.H]]|last2=[[Stein]]|first2=[[S.]]|last3=[[Okal]]|first3=[[E.A.]]|last4=[[Rubie]]|first4=[[D.]]|date=1996|title=Deep earthquakes and metastable mantle phase transformations in subducting oceanic lithosphere|url=|journal=Rev. Geophys. Space Phys.|volume=[[34]]|pages=[[261-306]]|via=}}</ref>. Two types of subductions have been identified along the Sunda Arc: 1) orthogonal subduction along Java and 2) oblique subduction on the Sumatra side. These subductions are separated by the [[Sunda Strait]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kopp|first=Heidrun|last2=Flueh|first2=Ernst R.|last3=Klaeschen|first3=Dirk|last4=Bialas|first4=Jörg|last5=Reichert|first5=Christian|date=2001-11-01|title=Crustal structure of the central Sunda margin at the onset of oblique subduction|url=https://academic.oup.com/gji/article/147/2/449/721561|journal=Geophysical Journal International|language=en|volume=147|issue=2|pages=449–474|doi=10.1046/j.0956-540x.2001.01547.x|issn=0956-540X}}</ref>.     
Mid-oceanic ridge basalts [[Basalt|(MORB)]] form most of the oceanic basin south of Sunda, according to geodynamic studies.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Hall|first=Robert|date=2002-04-01|title=Cenozoic geological and plate tectonic evolution of SE Asia and the SW Pacific: computer-based reconstructions, model and animations|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1367912001000694|journal=Journal of Asian Earth Sciences|series=Cenozoic geological and plate tectonic evolution of SE Asia and the SW Pacific: Computer-based reconstructions, model and animations (including CD-ROM)|language=en|volume=20|issue=4|pages=353–431|doi=10.1016/S1367-9120(01)00069-4|issn=1367-9120}}</ref> These plates began to converge in the Early [[Miocene Era|Miocene]]<ref name=":6" />. The [[Indo-Australian Plate]] is subducting beneath the [[Eurasian Plate]] with the dip angle of 49-56 degrees.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Syracuse|first=Ellen M.|last2=Abers|first2=Geoffrey A.|date=2006-05|title=Global compilation of variations in slab depth beneath arc volcanoes and implications: ARC VOLCANO SLAB DEPTH|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2005GC001045|journal=Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems|language=en|volume=7|issue=5|pages=n/a–n/a|doi=10.1029/2005GC001045}}</ref> The slab subducting under Java is continuous down to the lower mantle. However, the slab appears to beak apart under [[Sumatra|Sumatra Island]]''.''<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pesicek|first=J. D.|last2=Thurber|first2=C. H.|last3=Widiyantoro|first3=S.|last4=Engdahl|first4=E. R.|last5=DeShon|first5=H. R.|date=2008|title=Complex slab subduction beneath northern Sumatra|url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2008GL035262|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|language=en|volume=35|issue=20|doi=10.1029/2008GL035262|issn=1944-8007}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Widiyantoro|first=S.|last2=van der Hilst|first2=R.|date=1996-03-15|title=Structure and Evolution of Lithospheric Slab Beneath the Sunda Arc, Indonesia|url=https://www.sciencemag.org/lookup/doi/10.1126/science.271.5255.1566|journal=Science|language=en|volume=271|issue=5255|pages=1566–1570|doi=10.1126/science.271.5255.1566|issn=0036-8075}}</ref>Earthquake depth records indicate that there is no deep seismic activity in [[Sumatra]], likely due to the age of the subducting complex''.''<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wortel|first=M. J. R.|last2=Vlaar|first2=N. J.|date=1988|title=Subduction zone seismicity and the thermo-mechanical evolution of downgoing lithosphere|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF00874551|journal=Pure and Applied Geophysics PAGEOPH|language=en|volume=128|issue=3-4|pages=625–659|doi=10.1007/BF00874551|issn=0033-4553}}</ref><ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=[[Kirby ]]|first=[[S.H]]|last2=[[Stein]]|first2=[[S.]]|last3=[[Okal]]|first3=[[E.A.]]|last4=[[Rubie]]|first4=[[D.]]|date=1996|title=Deep earthquakes and metastable mantle phase transformations in subducting oceanic lithosphere|url=|journal=Rev. Geophys. Space Phys.|volume=[[34]]|pages=[[261-306]]|via=}}</ref>. Two types of subductions have been identified along the Sunda Arc: 1) orthogonal subduction along Java and 2) oblique subduction on the Sumatra side. These subductions are separated by the [[Sunda Strait]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kopp|first=Heidrun|last2=Flueh|first2=Ernst R.|last3=Klaeschen|first3=Dirk|last4=Bialas|first4=Jörg|last5=Reichert|first5=Christian|date=2001-11-01|title=Crustal structure of the central Sunda margin at the onset of oblique subduction|url=https://academic.oup.com/gji/article/147/2/449/721561|journal=Geophysical Journal International|language=en|volume=147|issue=2|pages=449–474|doi=10.1046/j.0956-540x.2001.01547.x|issn=0956-540X}}</ref>.     

== Notable Seismic Activities ==
With the ongoing magmatic activities and the nature of the subduction zone, Sunda Arc experiences major seismic events throughout history. These events cost the loss of lives and vast destruction along the coast. These are some major seismic events that have been recorded.
[[File:Aceh_2004_tsunami_standing_mosque_USGS.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aceh_2004_tsunami_standing_mosque_USGS.jpg|thumb|The aftermath of the 2004 tsunami in Aceh, Indonesia]]

==== [[Tsunami]] on December 2004, Indian Ocean ====
In 2004, the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami|tsunami in Indian Ocean]] was triggered by an earthquake of 9.15 magnitude near Sumatra Island<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Meltzner|first=Aron J.|last2=Sieh|first2=Kerry|last3=Abrams|first3=Michael|last4=Agnew|first4=Duncan C.|last5=Hudnut|first5=Kenneth W.|last6=Avouac|first6=Jean-Philippe|last7=Natawidjaja|first7=Danny H.|date=2006-02|title=Uplift and subsidence associated with the great Aceh-Andaman earthquake of 2004: THE 2004 EARTHQUAKE|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2005JB003891|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth|language=en|volume=111|issue=B2|pages=n/a–n/a|doi=10.1029/2005JB003891}}</ref>. In [[Banda Aceh]] area, the [[tsunami]] height reached up to 35 meters, which surpassed value recorded prior to this event<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lavigne|first=F.|last2=Gomez|first2=C.|last3=Giffo|first3=M.|last4=Wassmer|first4=P.|last5=Hoebreck|first5=C.|last6=Mardiatno|first6=D.|last7=Prioyono|first7=J.|last8=Paris|first8=R.|date=2007-02-09|title=Field observations of the 17 July 2006 Tsunami in Java|url=https://nhess.copernicus.org/articles/7/177/2007/|journal=Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences|language=en|volume=7|issue=1|pages=177–183|doi=10.5194/nhess-7-177-2007|issn=1684-9981}}</ref>.

==== Tsunami on July 2006, West Java and Central Java, Indonesia ====
Another devastating events also occurred on July 17, 2006 with major destruction along West Java and Central Java. The M<sub>w</sub>-7.7 earthquake-induced tsunami struck over 250 km of the coastline and cost more than 600 deaths. The approximate run-up height was about 4-6 meters<ref>{{Cite journal|last=[[Mor]]i|first=[[Jim]]|last2=[[Mooney]]|first2=[[Walter D.]]|last3=[[Kurniawan]]|first3=[[Sandy Arief]]|last4=[[Anaya]]|first4=[[Aan]]|last5=[[Widiyantoro]]|first5=[[Sri]]|date=2007|title=The 17 July 2006 Tsunami Earthquake in West Java, Indonesia|url=|journal=Seismological Research Letters|volume=[[78]]|pages=|via=}}</ref>.


== Historic eruptions ==
== Historic eruptions ==

Revision as of 16:53, 16 November 2020

A geographic view of the Sunda Arc
Sunda Arc
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Geography
LocationIndonesia
Coordinates7.1510° S, 110.1403° E
Major islandsSumatra, Java, Nusa Tenggara
Additional information
Tectonic - Indo-Australian Plate and Eurasia Plate
Major Volcanoes - Merapi, Krakatoa, Mount Sinabung, Semeru

The Sunda Arc is a volcanic arc that produced the volcanoes that form the topographic spine of the islands of Sumatra, Nusa Tenggara, and Java, the Sunda Strait and the Lesser Sunda Islands. The Sunda Arc begins at Sumatra and ends at Flores, and is adjacent to the Banda Arc[1]. The Sunda Arc is formed via the subduction of the Indo-Australian Plate beneath the Sunda and Burma plates at a velocity of 63-70 mm/year[2].

Formation and Geologic Setting

Mid-oceanic ridge basalts (MORB) form most of the oceanic basin south of Sunda, according to geodynamic studies.[3] These plates began to converge in the Early Miocene[3]. The Indo-Australian Plate is subducting beneath the Eurasian Plate with the dip angle of 49-56 degrees.[4] The slab subducting under Java is continuous down to the lower mantle. However, the slab appears to beak apart under Sumatra Island.[5][6]Earthquake depth records indicate that there is no deep seismic activity in Sumatra, likely due to the age of the subducting complex.[7][6][8]. Two types of subductions have been identified along the Sunda Arc: 1) orthogonal subduction along Java and 2) oblique subduction on the Sumatra side. These subductions are separated by the Sunda Strait[9].     

Notable Seismic Activities

With the ongoing magmatic activities and the nature of the subduction zone, Sunda Arc experiences major seismic events throughout history. These events cost the loss of lives and vast destruction along the coast. These are some major seismic events that have been recorded.

The aftermath of the 2004 tsunami in Aceh, Indonesia

Tsunami on December 2004, Indian Ocean

In 2004, the tsunami in Indian Ocean was triggered by an earthquake of 9.15 magnitude near Sumatra Island[10]. In Banda Aceh area, the tsunami height reached up to 35 meters, which surpassed value recorded prior to this event[11].

Tsunami on July 2006, West Java and Central Java, Indonesia

Another devastating events also occurred on July 17, 2006 with major destruction along West Java and Central Java. The Mw-7.7 earthquake-induced tsunami struck over 250 km of the coastline and cost more than 600 deaths. The approximate run-up height was about 4-6 meters[12].

Historic eruptions

The Sunda Arc is home to some of the world's most dangerous and explosive volcanoes. The 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora on Sumbawa and the 1257 eruption of Mount Samalas on Lombok were among the largest in the last two millennia, ranking 7 on the VEI scale. The Sunda Arc subduction zone was also the site of one of the largest known eruptions of the Cenozoic, the VEI 8 Toba supereruption on Sumatra, which expelled 2,800 km³ of magma c. 74,000 BP. The resulting caldera has become Lake Toba. The loudest noise in recorded history occurred during the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa and was heard 5,000 km (3,100 mi) away. Hundreds of thousands of people have been killed by these eruptions and by episodes of activity at other volcanoes, including Papandayan, Galunggung, Merapi, Kelud, and Agung.

A geologic map of Indonesia Region (ESRI, USGS, HERE, Garmin, NOAA)

Notable active volcanoes

See also: List of volcanoes in Indonesia

While there are 35 and 45 active volcanoes on Sumatra and Java respectively, and ~30 in the Lesser Sunda Islands, a few are notable for their recent and/or ongoing activity.

  • Mount Sinabung is a stratovolcano of andesite and dacite in the Karo plateau of North Sumatra, 40 kilometres (25 mi) from the Lake Toba supervolcano. It has been continuously active since 2013.
  • Krakatoa: The island of Anak Krakatau has grown at an average rate of five inches (13 cm) per week since the 1950s. Quiet periods of a few days have alternated with almost continuous Strombolian eruptions since 1994.
  • Mount Merapi is the most active volcano in Indonesia and has erupted regularly since 1548. The most recent significant eruptions occurred in 1994, 2006, and 2010.

See also

References

  1. ^ Pacey, Adam; Macpherson, Colin G.; McCaffrey, Ken J. W. (2013-05-01). "Linear volcanic segments in the central Sunda Arc, Indonesia, identified using Hough Transform analysis: Implications for arc lithosphere control upon volcano distribution". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 369–370: 24–33. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2013.02.040. ISSN 0012-821X.
  2. ^ Simons, W. J. F.; Socquet, A.; Vigny, C.; Ambrosius, B. a. C.; Abu, S. Haji; Promthong, Chaiwat; Subarya, C.; Sarsito, D. A.; Matheussen, S.; Morgan, P.; Spakman, W. (2007). "A decade of GPS in Southeast Asia: Resolving Sundaland motion and boundaries". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth. 112 (B6). doi:10.1029/2005JB003868. ISSN 2156-2202.
  3. ^ a b Hall, Robert (2002-04-01). "Cenozoic geological and plate tectonic evolution of SE Asia and the SW Pacific: computer-based reconstructions, model and animations". Journal of Asian Earth Sciences. Cenozoic geological and plate tectonic evolution of SE Asia and the SW Pacific: Computer-based reconstructions, model and animations (including CD-ROM). 20 (4): 353–431. doi:10.1016/S1367-9120(01)00069-4. ISSN 1367-9120.
  4. ^ Syracuse, Ellen M.; Abers, Geoffrey A. (2006-05). "Global compilation of variations in slab depth beneath arc volcanoes and implications: ARC VOLCANO SLAB DEPTH". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 7 (5): n/a–n/a. doi:10.1029/2005GC001045. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  5. ^ Pesicek, J. D.; Thurber, C. H.; Widiyantoro, S.; Engdahl, E. R.; DeShon, H. R. (2008). "Complex slab subduction beneath northern Sumatra". Geophysical Research Letters. 35 (20). doi:10.1029/2008GL035262. ISSN 1944-8007.
  6. ^ a b Widiyantoro, S.; van der Hilst, R. (1996-03-15). "Structure and Evolution of Lithospheric Slab Beneath the Sunda Arc, Indonesia". Science. 271 (5255): 1566–1570. doi:10.1126/science.271.5255.1566. ISSN 0036-8075.
  7. ^ Wortel, M. J. R.; Vlaar, N. J. (1988). "Subduction zone seismicity and the thermo-mechanical evolution of downgoing lithosphere". Pure and Applied Geophysics PAGEOPH. 128 (3–4): 625–659. doi:10.1007/BF00874551. ISSN 0033-4553.
  8. ^ Kirby , S.H; Stein, S.; Okal, E.A.; Rubie, D. (1996). "Deep earthquakes and metastable mantle phase transformations in subducting oceanic lithosphere". Rev. Geophys. Space Phys. 34: 261-306. {{cite journal}}: Check |first2= value (help); Check |first3= value (help); Check |first4= value (help); Check |first= value (help)
  9. ^ Kopp, Heidrun; Flueh, Ernst R.; Klaeschen, Dirk; Bialas, Jörg; Reichert, Christian (2001-11-01). "Crustal structure of the central Sunda margin at the onset of oblique subduction". Geophysical Journal International. 147 (2): 449–474. doi:10.1046/j.0956-540x.2001.01547.x. ISSN 0956-540X.
  10. ^ Meltzner, Aron J.; Sieh, Kerry; Abrams, Michael; Agnew, Duncan C.; Hudnut, Kenneth W.; Avouac, Jean-Philippe; Natawidjaja, Danny H. (2006-02). "Uplift and subsidence associated with the great Aceh-Andaman earthquake of 2004: THE 2004 EARTHQUAKE". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth. 111 (B2): n/a–n/a. doi:10.1029/2005JB003891. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  11. ^ Lavigne, F.; Gomez, C.; Giffo, M.; Wassmer, P.; Hoebreck, C.; Mardiatno, D.; Prioyono, J.; Paris, R. (2007-02-09). "Field observations of the 17 July 2006 Tsunami in Java". Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences. 7 (1): 177–183. doi:10.5194/nhess-7-177-2007. ISSN 1684-9981.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  12. ^ Mori, Jim; Mooney, Walter D.; Kurniawan, Sandy Arief; Anaya, Aan; Widiyantoro, Sri (2007). "The 17 July 2006 Tsunami Earthquake in West Java, Indonesia". Seismological Research Letters. 78. {{cite journal}}: Check |first2= value (help); Check |first3= value (help); Check |first4= value (help); Check |first5= value (help); Check |first= value (help)

Further reading

  • Newcomb KR & McCann WR. (1987). Seismic history and seismotectonics of the Sunda Arc. Journal of Geophysical Research; 92:421–439.


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