Cesare Lombroso

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Cesare Lombroso
Born
Ezechia Marco Lombroso

(1835-11-06)6 November 1835
Verona, Lombardy–Venetia
Died19 October 1909(1909-10-19) (aged 73)
Turin, Kingdom of Italy
NationalityItalian
Known forItalian school of positivist criminology
Scientific career
Fields
Signature

Cesare Lombroso (Italian pronunciation: [ˈtʃeːzare lomˈbroːzo; -oːso]; born Ezechia Marco Lombroso; 6 November 1835 – 19 October 1909), was an Italian criminologist and physician, founder of the Italian School of Positivist Criminology, often referred to as the father of criminology. Lombroso rejected the established classical school, which held that crime was a characteristic trait of human nature. Instead, using concepts drawn from physiognomy, degeneration theory, psychiatry and Social Darwinism, Lombroso's theory of anthropological criminology essentially stated that criminality was inherited, and that someone "born criminal" could be identified by physical (congenital) defects, which confirmed a criminal as savage or atavistic. These theories are not accepted by modern mainstream scientists.

Life

Criminology and penology
Theory
Types of crime
Methods
Penology
Justice in penology
Schools
Subfields
Browse

Lombroso was born in Verona, Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, on 6 November 1835 to a wealthy Jewish family.[2] His father was Aronne Lombroso, a tradesman from Verona, and his mother was Zeffora (or Zefira) Levi from Chieri near Turin.[3] Cesare Lombroso descended from a line of rabbis, which led him to study a wide range of topics in university.[4] Despite pursuing these studies in university, Lombroso eventually settled on pursuing a degree in medicine, which he graduated with from the University of Turin.[4] After leaving the military, Lombroso operated and oversaw an insane asylum in Pesaro.[4] Lombroso married a woman named Nina de Benedetti on April 10th, 1870. They had five children together, one of whom--Gina--would go on to edit Lombroso's work after his death.[4] Later in life Lombroso came to be influenced by his son-in-law, Guglielmo Ferrero, who led him to believe that not all criminality comes from one's inborn factors and that social factors also played a significant role in the process of shaping a criminal.[4] He studied literature, linguistics, and archæology at the universities of Padua, Vienna, and Paris, but changed his plans and became an army surgeon in 1859. In 1866 he was appointed visiting lecturer at Pavia, and later took charge of the insane asylum at Pesaro in 1871. He became professor of forensic medicine and hygiene at Turin in 1878.[5] That year he wrote his most important and influential work, L'uomo delinquente, which went through five editions in Italian and was published in various European languages. However, it was not until 1900 that his work was published in English. Lombroso later became professor of psychiatry (1896) and criminal anthropology (1906) at the same university.[2] He died in Turin in 1909.[6]

Concept of criminal atavism

Face measurements based on Lombroso's criminal anthropology

Lombroso's general theory suggested that criminals are distinguished from noncriminals by multiple physical anomalies. He postulated that criminals represented a reversion to a primitive or subhuman type of person characterized by physical features reminiscent of apes, lower primates, and early humans and to some extent preserved, he said, in modern "savages". The behavior of these biological "throwbacks" will inevitably be contrary to the rules and expectations of modern civilized society.

Through years of postmortem examinations and anthropometric studies of criminals, the insane, and normal individuals, Lombroso became convinced that the "born criminal" (reo nato, a term given by Ferri) could be anatomically identified by such items as a sloping forehead, ears of unusual size, asymmetry of the face, prognathism, excessive length of arms, asymmetry of the cranium, and other "physical stigmata". Specific criminals, such as thieves, rapists, and murderers, could be distinguished by specific characteristics, he believed. Lombroso also maintained that criminals had less sensibility to pain and touch; more acute sight; a lack of moral sense, including an absence of remorse; more vanity, impulsiveness, vindictiveness, and cruelty; and other manifestations, such as a special criminal argot and the excessive use of tattooing.

Besides the "born criminal", Lombroso also described "criminaloids", or occasional criminals, criminals by passion, moral imbeciles, and criminal epileptics. He recognized the diminished role of organic factors in many habitual offenders and referred to the delicate balance between predisposing factors (organic, genetic) and precipitating factors such as one's environment, opportunity, or poverty.

In Criminal Woman, as introduced in an English translation by Nicole Hahn Rafter and Mary Gibson, Lombroso used his theory of atavism to explain women's criminal offending. In the text, Lombroso outlines a comparative analysis of "normal women" opposed to "criminal women" such as "the prostitute."[7] However, Lombroso's "obdurate beliefs" about women presented an "intractable problem" for this theory: "Because he was convinced that women are inferior to men Lombroso was unable to argue, based on his theory of the born criminal, that women’s lesser involvement in crime reflected their comparatively lower levels of atavism."[8]

Lombroso's research methods were clinical and descriptive, with precise details of skull dimension and other measurements. He did not engage in rigorous statistical comparisons of criminals and non-criminals. Although he gave some recognition in his later years to psychological and sociological factors in the etiology of crime, he remained convinced of, and identified with, criminal anthropometry. After he died, his skull and brain were measured according to his own theories by a colleague as he requested in his will; his head was preserved in a jar and is still displayed with his collection at the Museum of Psychiatry and Criminology in Turin.[9]

Lombroso's theories were disapproved throughout Europe, especially in schools of medicine, but not in the United States, where sociological studies of crime and the criminal predominated. His notions of physical differentiation between criminals and non-criminals were seriously challenged by Charles Goring (The English Convict, 1913), who made elaborate comparisons and found insignificant statistical differences.

Legacy

Self-proclaimed the founder of modern scientific psychiatry, Lombroso is purported to have coined the term "criminology". He institutionalized the science of psychiatry in universities.[10] His graduating thesis from the University of Pavia dealt with "endemic cretinism".[11] In the next several years, Lombroso's fascination with criminal behavior and society began, and he gained experience managing a mental institution.[12] After a brief stint in the Italian army, Lombroso returned to the University of Pavia and became the first professor specializing in mental health.[11] By the 1880s, his theories had reached the pinnacle of their fame, and his accolades championed them throughout the fields dedicated to examining mental illness.[11] Lombroso differentiated himself from his predecessor and rival, Cesare Beccaria, through depicting his positivist school in opposition to Beccaria's classist one (which centered around the idea that criminal behavior is born out of free will rather than inherited physical traits).[12] Lombroso's psychiatric theories were conglomerated and collectively called the positivist school by his followers.[12] His school of thought was only truly abandoned in Italian universities' curriculum after World War II. [12]

Through his various publications, Lombroso established a school of psychiatry based on biological determinism and the idea that mental illness was via genetic factors.[11] A person's predisposition to mental illness was determinable through their appearance, as explained in the aforementioned criminal atavism segment. Lombroso's theory has been cited as possibly "the most influential doctrine" in all areas studying human behavior, and indeed, its impact extended far and wide.[10] According to Lombroso, criminal appearance was not just based on inherited physiognomy such as nose or skull shape, but also could be judged through superficial features like tattoos on the body.[13] In particular, Lombroso began searching for a relationship between tattoos and an agglomeration of symptoms (which are currently diagnosed as borderline personality disorder).[11] He also believed that tattoos indicated a certain type of criminal.

Through his observations of sex workers and criminals, Lombroso hypothesized a correlation between left-handedness, criminality, and degenerate behavior.[13] He also propagated the idea that left-handedness lead to other disabilities, by linking left-handedness with neurodegeneration and alcoholism.[13] Lombroso's theories were likely accepted due to the pre-existing regional stigma against left-handedness, and greatly influenced the reception of left-handedness in the 21st century. His hypothesis even manifested in a new way during the 1980s and 1990s with a series of research studies grouping left-handedness with psychiatric disorders and autoimmune diseases.[13]

Despite his stance on inherited immorality and biologically-destined criminal behavior, Lombroso believed in socialism and supposedly sympathized with stigmatization of lower socioeconomic statuses, placing him at odds with the biological determinism he espoused.[14] His work stereotyping degenerates can even be seen as an influence behind Benito Mussolini's movement to clean the streets of Italy.[14] Many adherents to Lombroso's positivist school stayed powerful during Mussolini's rule, because of the seamless way criminal atavism and biological determinism justified fascism.[12] However, certain legal institutions did press back against the idea that criminal behavior is biologically determined.

Within the penal system, Lombroso's work led to new forms of punishment, where occasionally punishment varied based on the defendant's biological background. There are a few instances in which case the physiognomy of the defendant actually mattered more than witness testimony and the defendant was subjected to harsher sentences.[10]

During the period in Italy between the 1850s and 1880s, the Italian government debated legislature for the insanity plea. Judges and lawyers backed Beccaria's classist school, tending to favor the idea that wrongdoers are breaking a societal contract out with the option to exercise free will, tying into Beccaria's classist school of social misbehavior.[12] Lombroso and his followers argued for a criminal code, in which the criminal understood as unable to act with free will due to their biological predisposition to crime.[12]

Since his research tied criminal behavior together with the insane, Lombroso is closely credited with the genesis of the criminal insane asylum and forensic psychiatry.[12] His work sponsored the creation of institutions where the criminally insane would be treated for mental illness, rather than placed in jails with their saner counterparts. One example of an asylum for the criminally insane is Bridgewater State Hospital, which is located in the United States. Other examples of these institutions are Matteawan State Hospital and Danvers State Hospital. Most have closed down, but the concept is kept alive with modern correctional facilities like Cook County Jail. This facility houses the largest population of prisoners with mental illness in the United States. However, it's important to note that criminal insane asylums did exist outside of Italy while Lombroso was establishing them within the country. His influence on the asylum was at first regional, but eventually percolated to other countries who adopted some of Lombroso's measure for treating the criminally insane.[12]

In addition to influencing criminal atavisim, Lombroso wrote a book called Genio e Follia, in which he discussed the link between genius and insanity.[11] He believed that genius was an evolutionarily beneficial form of insanity, stemming from the same root as other mental illnesses.[11] This hypothesis lead to his request to examine Leo Tolstoy for degenerate qualities during his attendance at the 12th International Medical Congress in Moscow in 1897. The meeting went poorly, and Tolstoy's novel, Resurrection, shows great disdain for Lombroso's methodology.[11]

Towards the end of his life, Lombroso began to study Pellagra in rural Italy, a disease which Joseph Goldberger simultaneously was researching.[11] He postulated that Pellagra came from a nutrition deficiet, officially proven by Goldberger.[11] This disease also found its roots in the same poverty that caused cretinism, which Lombroso studied at the start of his medical career. Furthermore, before Lombroso's death the Italian government passed a law in 1904 standardizing treatment in mental asylums and codifying procedural admittance for mentally ill criminals.[12] This law gave psychiatrists free reign within the criminal insane asylum, validating the field of psychiatry through giving the psychiatrists the sole authority to define and treat the causes of criminal behavior (a position which Lombroso argued for from his early teaching days to his death).[12]

Psychiatric art

Cesare Lombroso, in addition to his contributions towards criminality and his notion of 'degeneration', believed that genius was closely related to madness.[15] In his attempts to develop these notions, Lombroso traveled to Moscow and met with Lev Tolstoy in hopes of elucidating and providing evidence for his theory of genius reverting or degenerating into insanity.[15]

Lombroso published The Man of Genius in 1889, a book which argued that artistic genius was a form of hereditary insanity. In order to support this assertion, he began assembling a large collection of "psychiatric art". He published an article on the subject in 1880 in which he isolated thirteen typical features of the "art of the insane." Although his criteria are generally regarded as outdated today, his work inspired later writers on the subject, particularly Hans Prinzhorn.

Lombroso's The Man of Genius provided inspiration for Max Nordau's work, as evidenced by his dedication of Degeneration to Lombroso, whom he considered to be his "dear and honored master".[16] In his exploration of geniuses descending into madness, Lombroso stated that he could only find six men who did not exhibit symptoms of "degeneration" or madness; Galileo, Da Vinci, Voltaire, Machiavelli, Michelangelo, and Darwin.[16] On the other hand, Lombroso cited that men such as Shakespeare, Plato, Aristotle, Mozart and Dante all displayed "degenerate symptoms".[16] In order to justify which geniuses were 'degenerate' or insane, Lombroso judged each genius by whether or not they displayed "degenerate symptoms", which included precocity, longetivity, versatility, and inspiration.[16] Lombroso suplemented these personal observations with measurements including facial angles, "abnormalities" in bone structure, and volumes of brain fluid.[16][17] Measurements of skulls taken included those from Kant, Volta, Foscolo, and Fusinieri.[17] Lombroso's approach in using skull measurements was inspired by the work and research in the field of phrenology by German doctor Franz Joseph Gall.[4] In commenting on skull measurements, Lombroso would make observations such as "I have noted several characters which anthropologists consider to belong to the lower races, such as prominence of the styloid apophyses". This observation was recorded in response to his analysis of Alessandro Volta's skull.[17] Lombroso connected geniuses to various health disorders as well, by listing signs of degenration in chapter two of his work--some of which include abnormalities and discrepencies in height and pallor.[17] Lombroso listed the following geniuses, among others, as "sickly and weak during childhood"; Demosthenes, Bacon, Descartes, Newton, Locke, Adam Smith, Boyle, Pope, Flaxman, Nelson, Haller, Korner, and Pascal.[17] Other physical afflictions that Lombroso connected with degeneracy included rickets, emaciation, sterility, lefthandedness, unconsciousness, stupidity, somnambulism, smallness or disproportionality of the body, and amnesia.[17] In his explanation of the connection between genius and the "degenerative marker" of height, Lombroso cites the following people: Owning, Ibsen, George Eliot, Thiers, Browning, Louis Blanc, and Swinburne among others.[17] He continues by listing the only "great men of tall stature" that he knows of, including Petrarch, Schiller, Foscolo, Bismarck, Charlemagne, Dumas, Peter the Great, and Voltaire.[17] Lombroso further cited certain personality traits as markers of degeneracy, such as "a fondness for special words" and "the inspiration of genius".[17]

Lombroso's methods and explanations in The Man of Genius were rebutted and questioned by the American Journal of Psychiatry. In a review of The Man of Genius they stated, "here we have hypothesis claiming to be the result of strict scientific investigation and reluctant conviction, bolstered up by half-told truths, misrepresentations and assumptions.[18] Lombroso's work was also criticized by Italian anthropologist Giuseppe Sergi who, in his review of Lombroso's The Man of Genius--and specifically his classifications and definitions of "the genius"--stated "by creating a genius according to his own fancy, an ideal and abstact being, and not by examining the personality of a real living genius, he naturally arrives at the conclusion that all theories by which the origin of genius is sought to be explained on a basis of observation, and especially that particular one which finds in degeneration the cause or one of the causes of genius, are erroneous."[19] Sergi continued by stating that such theorists are "like the worshippers of the saints or of fetishes, who do not recognize the material from which the fetish is made, or the human origin from which the saint has sprung".[19]

Spiritualism

Later in his life Lombroso began investigating mediumship. Although originally skeptical, he later became a believer in spiritualism.[20] As an atheist[21] Lombroso discusses his views on the paranormal and spiritualism in his book After Death – What? (1909) which he believed the existence of spirits and claimed the medium Eusapia Palladino was genuine. In the British Medical Journal on November 9, 1895 an article was published titled Exit Eusapia!. The article questioned the scientific legitimacy of the Society for Psychical Research for investigating Palladino a medium who had a reputation of being a fraud and imposter and was surprised that Lombroso had been deceived by Palladino.[22]

The anthropologist Edward Clodd wrote "[Lombroso] swallowed the lot at a gulp, from table raps to materialisation of the departed, spirit photographs and spirit voices; every story, old or new, alike from savage and civilised sources, confirming his will to believe."[23] Lombroso's daughter Gina Ferrero wrote that during the later years of his life Lombroso suffered from arteriosclerosis and his mental and physical health was wrecked. The skeptic Joseph McCabe wrote that because of this it was not surprising that Palladino managed to fool Lombroso into believing spiritualism by her tricks.[24]

Literary impact

Historian Daniel Pick argues that Lombroso serves "as a curious footnote to late-nineteenth-century literary studies," due to his referencing in famous books of the time. Jacques in Émile Zola's The Beast Within is described as having a jaw that juts forward on the bottom. It is emphasized especially at the end of the book when he is overwhelmed by the desire to kill. The anarchist Karl Yundt in Joseph Conrad's The Secret Agent, delivers a speech denouncing Lombroso. The assistant prosecutor in Leo Tolstoy's Resurrection uses Lombroso's theories to accuse Maslova of being a congenital criminal. In Bram Stoker's Dracula, Count Dracula is described as having a physical appearance Lombroso would describe as criminal.[25][26]

Lombroso was used for the name of the institute in Philip Kerr's techno-thriller A Philosophical Investigation.[27]

Works

  • 1859  Ricerche sul cretinismo in Lombardia
  • 1864  Genio e follia
  • 1865  Studi clinici sulle mallatie mentali
  • 1871  L'uomo bianco e l'uomo di colore
  • 1873  Sulla microcefala e sul cretinismo con applicazione alla medicina legale
  • 1876  L'uomo delinquente
  • 1879  Considerazioni al processo Passannante
  • 1881  L'amore nel suicidio e nel delitto
  • 1888  L'uomo di genio in rapporto alla psichiatria (English translation:  Man of Genius, London, 1891; see below)
  • 1890  Sulla medicina legale del cadavere (second edition)
  • 1891  Palimsesti del carcere
  • 1892  Trattato della pellagra
  • 1894  Le più recenti scoperte ed applicazioni della psichiatria ed antropologia criminale
  • 1894  Gli anarchici
  • 1894  L'antisemitismo e le scienze moderne
  • 1897  Genio e degenerazione
  • 1898  Les Conquêtes récentes de la psychiatrie
  • 1899  Le crime; causes et remédes (English translation:  Crime, its Causes and Remedies, Boston, 1911; see below)
  • 1900  Lezioni de medicina legale
  • 1902  Delitti vecchi e delitti nuovi
  • 1909  Ricerche sui fenomeni ipnotici e spiritici

In 1906, a collection of papers on Lombroso was published in Turin under the title L'opera di Cesare Lombroso nella scienza e nelle sue applicazioni.

in English translation

Selected articles

Other

  • Arthur MacDonald, Criminology, with an Introduction by Cesare Lombroso, Funk & Wagnalls Company, 1893.
  • August Drahms, The Criminal, with an Introduction by Cesare Lombroso, The Macmillan Company, 1900.

See also

References

  1. ^ "Lombroso, Cesare" in the International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences (1968).
  2. ^ a b "Cesare Lombroso, A Brief Biography", Brain and Mind (1997).
  3. ^ "Cesare Lombroso, the Inventor of Criminal Anthropology", Museo Criminologico, Italian Ministry of Justice, Department of Penitentiary Administration
  4. ^ a b c d e f "Cesare Lombroso". New World Encyclopedia. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |dead-url= (help)
  5. ^ "The Cesare Lombroso Museum", Museo Criminologico, Italian Ministry of Justice, Department of Penitentiary Administration
  6. ^ Courtney Kenny, "The Death of Lombroso," Journal of the Society of Comparative Legislation, New Series, Vol. 10, No. 2 (1910).
  7. ^ Rafter, Nicole Hahn (2004). Criminal Woman. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  8. ^ Gartner, Rosemary (September–October 2004). "Book Review". Canadian Journal of Sociology Online. Retrieved 10 March 2016.
  9. ^ Engines of Our Ingenuity No. 2829: Cesare Lombroso
  10. ^ a b c Bergman, Gerald (2005). "Darwinian criminality theory : a tragic chapter in history". Rivista di biologia. 98.1: 47–70.
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Carra, Giuseppe (April 2004). "Images in Psychiatry: Cesare Lombroso, M.D. 1835-1909". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 161.4: 624 – via ProQuest Central.
  12. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Gibson, Mary (2014). "Forensic psychiatry and the birth of the criminal insane asylum in modern Italy". International Journal of Law and Psychiatry. 37: 117–126 – via ScienceDirect.
  13. ^ a b c d Kushner, Howard (2013). "Deficit or creativity: Cesare Lombroso, Robert Hertz, and the meanings of left-handedness". Laterality. 18.4: 416–436.
  14. ^ a b "Book Reviews: Mary Gibson. Born to Crime: Cesare Lombroso and the Origins of Biological Criminology". Journal of the Behavioral Sciences. 41.1: 79–80. Winter 2005.
  15. ^ a b Mazzarello, Paolo. "Cesare Lombroso: an anthropologist between evolution and degeneration". National Institute of Health. Functional Neurology. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |dead-url= (help)
  16. ^ a b c d e "Deviance, disorder and the self : Degeneration". www.bbk.ac.uk. Retrieved 2017-04-13.
  17. ^ a b c d e f g h i "Full text of "The Man Of Genius."". archive.org. Retrieved 2017-04-13.
  18. ^ B., J. (1892-04-01). "Genius and Insanity. (The Man of Genius, by Cesare Lombroso. Contemporary Science Series. C. Scribner's Sons.)". American Journal of Psychiatry. 48 (4): 529–531. doi:10.1176/ajp.48.4.529. ISSN 0002-953X.
  19. ^ a b Sergi, G. (1899-01-01). "THE MAN OF GENIUS". The Monist. 10 (1): 85–115.
  20. ^ Cristina Mazzoni. (1996). Saint hysteria: neurosis, mysticism, and gender in European culture. Cornell University Press. p. 34
  21. ^ Andrea Rondini. (2001). Cosa da pazzi: Cesare Lombroso e la letteratura. Istituti Editoriali e Poligrafici Internazionali. p. 33
  22. ^ The British Medical Journal. (Nov. 9, 1895). Exit Eusapia!. Volume. 2, No. 1819. p. 1182.
  23. ^ Edward Clodd. (1917). The Question: A Brief History and Examination of Modern Spiritualism. Grant Richards, London. p. 236
  24. ^ Joseph McCabe. (1920). Scientific Men and Spiritualism: A Skeptic's Analysis. The Living Age. June 12. pp. 652-657.
  25. ^ Pick, Daniel (1993). Faces of degeneration : a Europeam disorder, c. 1848-c. 1918 (1st pbk. ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 109–110. ISBN 978-0521457538.
  26. ^ Gould, Stephen Jay (2008). The mismeasure of man (Rev. and expanded, with a new introduction. ed.). New York: W.W. Norton. pp. 122–3. ISBN 0393314251.
  27. ^ Philip Kerr, A Philosophical Investigation, Chatto & Windus, 1992.
  28. ^ Michael Schwab, "A Convicted Anarchist's Reply to Professor Lombroso," The Monist, Vol. I, 1890.

Bibliography

  • Albrecht, Adalbert (1910). "Cesare Lombroso". Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology. I (2): 71. doi:10.2307/1133036.
  • Bianchi, A. G. (11 Feb 1922). Cesare Lombroso — A Life of Service. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
  • Bradley, Kate (2009). "Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909)". Fifty Key Thinkers in Criminology. Routledge.
  • Chiò, A.; et al. (2004). "Cesare Lombroso, Cortical Dysplasia, and Epilepsy: Keen Findings and Odd Theories". Neurology. 63 (1): 194. doi:10.1212/wnl.63.1.194-a.
  • Fleming, Rebecca B. (2000). "Scanty Goatees and Palmar Tatoos: Cesare Lombroso's Influence on Science and Popular Opinion" (PDF). The Concord Review.
  • Gaakeer, Jeanne (2005). "The Art to Find the Mind's Construction in the Face, Lombroso's Criminal Anthropology and Literature: The Example of Zola, Dostoevsky and Tolstoy". Cardozo Law Review. 26 (6).
  • Gatti, Uberto; Verde, Alfredo (2012). "Cesare Lombroso: Methodological Ambiguities and Brilliant Intuitions". International Journal of Law and Psychiatry. 35 (1): 19–26. doi:10.1016/j.ijlp.2011.11.004.
  • Gibson, Mary (2002). Born to Crime: Cesare Lombroso and the Origins of Biological Criminology. Praeger.
  • Gould, Stephen J. (1996). The Mismeasure of Man. W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-31425-1.
  • Hill, John S. (1970). "The Influence of Cesare Lombroso on Frank Norris's Early Fiction". American Literature. 42 (1): 89. doi:10.2307/2924383.
  • Horn, David G. (2003). The Criminal Body: Lombroso and the Anatomy of Deviance. Routledge.
  • Jacobs, Robert G. (1968). "Comrade Ossipon's Favorite Saint: Lombroso and Conrad". Nineteenth-Century Fiction. 23 (1): 74–84. doi:10.2307/2932318.
  • Kenny, Courtney Stanhope (1910). "The Death of Lombroso". Journal of the Society of Comparative Legislation. 10 (2). New Series.
  • Knepper, Paul; Ystehede, P. J. (2012). The Cesare Lombroso Handbook. Routledge.
  • Kurella, Hans (1911). "Cesare Lombroso: A Modern Man of Science". Rebman Company.
  • Kushner, Howard I (2011). "Cesare Lombroso and the Pathology of Left-handedness". The Lancet.
  • Kushner, Howard I. (2012). "Deficit or Creativity: Cesare Lombroso, Robert Hertz, and the Meanings of Left-handedness". Laterality: Asymmetries of Body, Brain and Cognition. 18: 416–436. doi:10.1080/1357650x.2012.697171.
  • Mannheim, Hermann (1960). Pioneers in Criminology. Stevens & Sons.
  • Rafter, Nicole Hahn and Mary Gibson. (2004). Introduction to Criminal Woman (English translation). Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
  • Past, Elena (2012). Methods of Murder: Beccarian Introspection and Lombrosian Vivisection in Italian Crime Fiction. University of Toronto Press.
  • Quirós, Constancio Bernaldo de (1912). "Cesare Lombroso, 1836-1909". Modern Theories of Criminality. Little, Brown & Company.
  • Wolfgang, Marvin E. (1961). "Pioneers in Criminology: Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909)". The Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science. 52 (4): 361. doi:10.2307/1141263.

External links

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