Jump to content

Coal in China

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Citation bot (talk | contribs) at 16:07, 25 October 2022 (Alter: doi, template type. Add: doi-access, volume, journal, date. Removed proxy/dead URL that duplicated identifier. Removed parameters. | Use this bot. Report bugs. | Suggested by Headbomb | Linked from Wikipedia:WikiProject_Academic_Journals/Journals_cited_by_Wikipedia/Sandbox | #UCB_webform_linked 94/614). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Coal supplies most of China's energy
Entrance to a small coal mine in China, 1999
A coal shipment underway in China, 2007
An operating power plant in China, 2005
Historical coal production of different countries

China is the largest producer and consumer of coal in the world. It is also the largest user of coal-generated electricity, with over a thousand coal-fired power stations.[1] The share of coal in the energy mix declined during the 2010s, falling from 80% in 2010 to 58% in 2019.[2][3] China emits over 10% of global greenhouse gas. China's large demand was in part responsible for the delay in peak global coal production,[4] coal production reached a record high in December 2021[5] and coal consumption in China is forecast to reach a record high in 2021.[6]

Overall electricity consumption continued to rise in the 2010s, and new coal-fired power plants were constructed to help meet demand. But to curtail the pace of coal-fired power station construction, the National Energy Administration in 2017 canceled coal-fired power plant permits that would have amounted to 120 GW of future capacity.[7] However, local authorities seeking to create jobs resisted the efforts of central authorities to cut back.

Despite central government attempts to clamp down on construction and shifting demand in the market to renewable, nuclear and natural gas sources,[8] 43 coal power units were announced in the first half of 2021 according to the Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air in August 2021.[9] Together with proposed blast furnaces they would increase greenhouse gas emissions by China by an estimated 150 million tons a year.[9] During the 2021 energy crisis in China, this dependency on coal units, depletion of reserves, increasing import prices, and slowdowns of shipment and production lead to widespread shutdowns of industrial energy use.[10][11]

Chinese construction firms are also building coal-fired power stations in other countries.[12] However, a 2021 commitment by CCP general secretary Xi Jinping at the UN General Assembly pledged an end to the international funding.[13]

History

Site of the former Ministry of Coal Industry in Hepingli, Beijing; the ministry was abolished in 1998

Coal mines in pre-industrial China

Ancient people in current China started using coal around 6 000 years ago.[14] Historians suspects that the Chinese were involved in the surface mining of coal around 3490 BC, pioneering the pre-modern world.[15] Fushan mine uses[clarification needed] to be pointed out as the earliest coal mine in the ancient world and started around 1 000 BC. In pre-modern China, coal was constrained both by the limitations of traditional technology and the weakness of demand.[16] In the 3rd century BC, Chinese people began burning coal for heat.[17] The spread of coal use was gradual until the late 11th century when a timber shortage in north China produced a fast-paced expansion in coal mining and consumption.[16] In 1000 AD, Chinese mines were ahead of most mining advancements[clarification needed] in the world.[17]

Coal mines in China faced similar problems to European ones. Both Chinese and European miners preferred to use drift mines sunk horizontally into the hillside for drainage of water. In the 18th century, British observers realized that such mines in Guangdong were opening out directly on to a river. Slope mines were the second most common type, as mines in Leiyang, Hunan.[16]

In the 19th century, shaft mines were predominant, especially in north China. European observers interpreted that as a consequence of the lack of wood in the zone to hold up the roof in slope mines. Flooding was a constant problem, and several mines were abandoned for that reason.[16]

Coal mines in China were as deep as those in Europe. In areas such as Shanxi with natural drainage, mines were as deep as 120 m. From Henan and Manchuria, mines had depths of 90 m or more.[16]

Early coal consumption in China

Coal consumption in traditional China was substantial but low on a per capita basis. Main coal demand came from industry. The earliest references to coal are in the context of smelting methods. The technology was spread from the central plain to outlying areas in China.[16]

In the 11th century, the iron produced in north China was smelted in coke-burning blast-furnaces. Deforestation in that zone forced to turn to the use of coke, mushrooming ironworking centers along the Henan-Hebei border. Accounts of that period estimate that at least 140 000 tons of coal a year were used by the iron industry in that zone. Chinese scientist Song Yingxing suggested that around 70% of iron was smelted with coal. Meanwhile, 30% used charcoal. Shanxi was the center of the iron industry in late traditional times.[timeframe?] German scientist Ferdinand von Richthofen accounted for the use of coal in several areas of the province.[16]

Early descriptions of coal for household purposes go back until the 6th century when a writer pointed out that food tastes different according to whether it was cooked over coal, charcoal, bamboo, or grass. From the 11th century, coal was the main option in the household in the capital at Kaifeng. At the beginning of the 12th century, twenty new coal markets were established and coal replaced charcoal in the zone. Increasing demand led to the development of mining in areas of Henan and Shandong. Marco Polo claimed that coal was "burnt through the province of Cathay" and pointed out that was used in bathhouses.[16]

Production

Coal production in China, 1950–2012
Production of coal within China by type.
For reference: GDP of the PRC. Coal production and usage demonstrates a hypersensitivity to economic changes.

Coalfields

China produces most of the thermal coal (both black and brown coal) it burns, but imports coking coal to make high quality steel.[18] Inner Mongolia, Shanxi and Shaanxi are the main coal-producing provinces,[19] and most coal is found in the north and northwest of the country.[20] This poses a large logistical problem for supplying electricity to the more heavily populated coastal areas in the southeast.[21][22]

Coal production

China is the largest coal producer in the world,[23] with 3.84 billion tonnes in 2020 and China National Coal Association forecasting an increase in 2021.[24] The coal production 1829 Mtoe in 2018 is more than the total aggregate of next nine top coal producers and 46.7% of the total global production.[25]

Coal in China (million tonnes)[26][27][a]
Production Net import Net available
2005 2,226 -47 2,179
2008 2,761 nd 2,761
2009 2,971 114 3,085
2010 3,162 157 3,319
2011 3,576 177 3,753
2012 3,549 278 3,827
2013 3,561 320 3,881
2014 3,640 292 3,932
2015 3,563 204 3,767
2016 3,268 282 3,550
2017 3,397 284 3,681
2018[b] 3,550 295 3,845
  1. ^ excluding Hong Kong
  2. ^ Provisional data

In 2011, seven Chinese coal mining companies produced 100 million tonnes of coal or more. These companies were Shenhua Group, China Coal Group, Shaanxi Coal and Chemical Industry, Shanxi Coking Coal Group, Datong Coal Mine Group, Jizhong Energy, and Shandong Energy.[28] The largest metallurgical coal producer was Shanxi Coking Coal Group.[29]

In 2015, official statistics revealed that previous statistics had been systematically underestimated by 17%, corresponding to the entire CO2 emissions of Germany.[30]

A coal mine near Hailar District.

China's largest open-pit coal mine is located in Haerwusu in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. It started production in 2008, and is operated by Shenhua Group. Its estimated coal output was forecast at 7 million tonnes in the fourth quarter of 2008. With a designed annual capacity of 20 million tonnes of crude coal, it will operate for approximately 79 years. Its coal reserves total about 1.73 billion tonnes. It is rich in low-sulfur steam coal.[31] Mines in Inner Mongolia are rapidly expanding production, with 637 million tons produced in 2009. Transport of coal from this region to seaports on China's coast has overloaded highways such as China National Highway 110 resulting in chronic traffic jams and delays.[32]

In 2021, the government ordered all coal mines to operate at full capacity at all times, including holidays; approved new mines, and reduced restrictions on coal mining.[33]

Imports

China is the world's largest importer of coal: with big imports from Russia and Indonesia in the 2020s.[34][35] After boycotting Australian coal in 2020, coking coal imports from Mongolia[36] and the US increased.[34]

Use

57% of energy consumption was from coal in 2020, and 49% for coal-fired power.[37] The coal consumption was 1907 Mtoe in 2018 which is 50.2% of the global consumption.[25] The National Development and Reform Commission, which determines the energy policy of China, aims to keep China's coal consumption below 3.8 billion tonnes per annum.[citation needed]

The consumption of coal is largely in power production, aside from this, there is a lot of industry and manufacturing use along with a comparatively very small amount of domestic use in poorer households for heating and cooking.[35]

IEA Breakdown of coal consumption (million short tons), 2007[38]
Use Anthracite Coking Coal Other Bituminous
Residential 0 0 71.7
Industry 24.6 16.3 342.1
Electricity Plants 0 0.2 1305.2
Heat Plants 0 0.19 153.7
Other Transformation[39] 0 359.2 84.0

Electricity generation

Main article: Electricity sector in China

Coal power is distributed by the State Power Grid Corporation.

China's installed coal-based electrical capacity was 1080 GW in 2021,[40] about half the total installed capacity.[41] Coal generated 57% of electricity in 2020.[42] Over half the world's coal-fired power is generated in China.[43] 5 GW of new coal power was approved in the first half of 2021.[41] Quotas force utility companies to buy coal power over cheaper renewable power.[44] Carbon Tracker estimated in 2020 that the average coal fleet loss was about 4 USD/MWh and that about 60% of power stations were cashflow negative in 2018 and 2019.[45] According to 2020 analysis by Energy Foundation China, to keep warming to 1.5 degrees C all China's coal plants without carbon capture must be phased out by 2045.[46]

Industrial use

One of the principal users is the steel industry in China, which burns metallurgical coal.[47]

Domestic use

Coal for domestic use (honeycomb briquettes) being transported by use of a tricycle, 1997.

In cities the domestic burning of coal is no longer permitted. In rural areas coal is still permitted to be used by Chinese households, commonly burned raw in unvented stoves. This fills houses with high levels of toxic metals leading to bad indoor air quality (IAQ). In addition, people eat food cooked over coal fires that contains toxic substances. Toxic substances from coal burning include arsenic, fluorine, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and mercury. These cause health issues such as severe arsenic poisoning, skeletal fluorosis (over 10 million people afflicted in China), esophageal and lung cancers, and selenium poisoning.[48]

China is now aware of the impact of coal on the environment and is taking steps to change it. Currently, China has started to implement natural gas as an alternative to coal for heating. But if rural areas lose government subsidies, no one will continue to use natural gas. [49]

In 2007 the use of coal and biomass (collectively referred to as solid fuels) for domestic purposes was nearly ubiquitous in rural households but declining in urban homes. At that time, estimates put the number of premature deaths due to indoor air pollution at 420,000 per year, which is even higher than due to outdoor air pollution, estimated at around 300,000 deaths per year. The specific mechanisms for death cited have been respiratory illnesses, lung cancer, Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD), weakening of the immune system, and reduction in lung function. Measured pollution levels in homes using solid fuels generally exceeded China's IAQ air quality standards. Technologies exist to improve indoor air quality, notably the installation of a chimney and modernized bioenergy but need more support to make a larger difference.[50]


Carbon footprint

Most CO2 is from coal

2019 carbon emissions from coal in China are estimated at 7.24 billion tonnes CO2 emissions,[51] around 14% of the world total greenhouse gas emissions of around 50 billion tonnes.[52] In 2021 the carbon price was about one-tenth of the EU carbon price.[44]

It is believed that a continued increase in coal power in China may undermine international initiatives to decrease carbon emissions, such as the Paris Agreement.[53]

Efforts to reduce emissions

Air pollution in China kills 750,000 people every year, according to a study by the World Bank.[54] Issued in response to record-high levels of air pollution in 2012 and 2013, the State Council's September 2013 Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution reiterated the need to reduce coal's share in China's energy mix to 65% by 2017.[55] Amidst growing public concern, social unrest incidents are growing around the country. For example, in December 2011 the government suspended plans to expand a coal-fired power plant in the city of Haimen after 30,000 local residents staged a violent protest against it, because "the coal-fired power plant was behind a rise in the number of local cancer patients, environmental pollution and a drop in the local fishermen's catch."[56]

In addition to environmental and health costs at home, China's dependence on coal is cause for concern on a global scale. Due in large part to the emissions caused by burning coal, China is now the number one producer of carbon dioxide, responsible for a full quarter of the world's CO2 output.[57] The country has taken steps towards battling climate change by pledging to cut its carbon intensity (the amount of CO2 produced per dollar of economic output) by about 40 percent by 2020, compared to 2005 levels.[57]

China has said carbon dioxide from coal will peak by 2025.[58] On average, China's coal plants work more efficiently than those in the United States, due to their relative youth.[59]

In September 2011, the Chinese government's Ministry of Environmental Protection announced a new emission standard for thermal power plants, for NOx and mercury, and a tightening of SO2 and soot standards. New coal power plants have a set date of the beginning of 2012 and for old power plants by mid-2014. They must also abide by a new limit on mercury by beginning of 2015. It is estimated such measures could bring about a 70% reduction in NOx emissions from power plants.[60]

The Chinese national carbon trading scheme began in 2021.

Beijing

China decided to close the last four coal-fired power and heating plants out of Beijing's municipal area, replacing them with gas-fired power plants, in an effort to improve air quality in the capital. The four plants, owned by Huaneng Power International, Datang International Power Generation Co Ltd, China Shenhua Energy and Beijing Jingneng Thermal Power Co Ltd, had a total power generating capacity of about 2.7 gigawatts (GW).[61] All of them have been closed as of March 2019.[citation needed]

Coal mine fires

It is estimated that coal mine fires in China burn about 200 million kg of coal each year. Small illegal fires are frequent in the northern region of Shanxi. Local miners may use abandoned mines for shelter and intentionally set such fires. One study estimates that this translates into 360 million metric tons of carbon dioxide emissions per year, which is not included in the previous emissions figures.[62]

North China's Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region has announced plans to extinguish fires in the region by 2012. Most of these fires were caused by bad mining practices combined with bad weather. 200 million yuan (29.3 million USD) has been budgeted to this effect.[63]

Accidents and deaths

Main article: List of coal mining accidents in China

In 2003, the death rate per million tons of coal mined in China was 130 times higher than in the United States, 250 times higher than in Australia (open cast mines) and 10 times higher than the Russian Federation (underground mines). However the safety figures in the major state owned coal enterprises were significantly better. Even so, in 2007 China produced one third of the world's coal but had four fifths of coal fatalities.[64] China's coal mining industry resorts to forced labor according to a 2014 U.S. Department of Labor report on child labor and forced labor around the world,[65] and that these workers are all the more exposed to the dangers of such activities.

Pulmonary disease

Disability-adjusted life year for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004.[66]
  no data
  less than 110
  110–220
  220–330
  330–440
  440–550
  550–660
  660–770
  770–880
  880–990
  990–1100
  1100–1350
  more than 1350

While not directly attributable, many more deaths are resultant from dangerous emissions from coal plants. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), linked to exposure to fine particulates, SO2, and cigarette smoke among other factors, accounted for 26% of all deaths in China in 1988.[67] A report by the World Bank in cooperation with the Chinese government found that about 750,000 people die prematurely in China each year from air pollution. Later, the government asked the researchers to soften the conclusions.[68]

Many direct deaths happen in coal mining and processing. In 2007, 1,084 out of the 3,770 workers who died were from gas blasts. Small mines (comprising 90% of all mines) are known to have far higher death rates, and the government of China has banned new coal mines with a high gas danger and a capacity below 300,000 tons in an effort to reduce deaths a further 20% by 2010. The government has also vowed to close 4,000 small mines to improve industry safety.[69]

Accidents

As of 2009, the government has been cracking down on unregulated mining operations, which in 2009 accounted for nearly 80 percent of the country's 16,000 mines. The closure of about 1,000 dangerous small mines in 2008 helped to cut in half the average number of miners killed, to about six a day, in the first six months of 2009, according to the government. Major gas explosions in coal mines remain a problem, though the number of accidents and deaths have gradually declined year by year, the chief of the State Administration of Work Safety, Luo Lin, told a national conference in September 2009.[70]

In the first nine months of 2009, China's coal mines had eleven major accidents with 303 deaths, with gas explosions the leading cause, according to the central government. Most accidents are blamed on failures to follow safety rules, including a lack of required ventilation or fire control equipment.[70]

Unofficial estimates often estimate death tolls at twice the official number reported by the government.[71][unreliable source?] Since 1949 over 250,000 coal mining deaths have been recorded[when?].[72] However, since 2002, the death toll is gradually declining while the coal production is rapidly rising, doubling over this same period[when?].

By year

A Chinese coal miner at the Jin Hua Gong Mine
Year Number of accidents Deaths Death rate per
million tons of coal
2000 2,863 5,798 5.80
2001 3,082 5,670 5.11
2002 4,344 6,995 4.93
2003 4,143 6,434 4.00
2004 3,639 6,027 3.01
2005 3,341 5,986 2.73
2006 2,945 4,746 1.99
2007 3,770 1.44
2008 3,210 1.18
2009 1,616 2,631 0.89
2010 2,433[73]
2011 1,973[74]
2012 1,301
2013 1,049

Source: State Administration of Work Safety[75]

Technology export

As of 2018 China is exporting technology, for example for coal mining in Turkey.[76]

Just transition to phase out coal

According to BloombergNEF excluding subsidies the levelized cost of electricity from new large-scale solar power has been below existing coal-fired power stations since 2021.[77] Coal production employed 2.6 million in 2020 so a just transition is important, but renewable energy creates more jobs per yuan invested.[78] Almost half of tax revenue in Shanxi province is from coal.[78] Energy storage and demand response are important for replacing coal generation.[79] In 2020 a group of experts said that China should stop subsidizing coal.[80]

International opinions

See also: Debate over China's economic responsibilities for climate change mitigation

In 2020 UN secretary general António Guterres said that China should stop building coal-fired power stations,[81] and such building was criticized by US climate envoy John Kerry in 2021 as making it difficult to limit climate change.[82]

See also

Other countries

References

  1. ^ "Report: China emissions exceed all developed nations combined". BBC News. 2021-05-07. Retrieved 2021-09-06.
  2. ^ "China's annual coal consumption rises for first time in 3 years". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 2018-09-28. Retrieved 2018-09-27.
  3. ^ "Coal's share of China energy mix falls to 57.7% in 2019". Reuters. February 28, 2020.
  4. ^ "Coal Information: Overview". Paris: International Energy Agency. July 2020. Retrieved 4 November 2020.
  5. ^ "China's coal production hit record levels in 2021". TheGuardian.com. 17 January 2022.
  6. ^ "Coal – Global Energy Review 2021 – Analysis". IEA. Retrieved 2021-10-04.
  7. ^ "China Cancels 103 Coal Plants, Mindful of Smog and Wasted Capacity". New York Times. January 18, 2017. Archived from the original on December 28, 2017. Retrieved February 6, 2017.
  8. ^ "A glut of new coal-fired power stations endangers China's green ambitions". Economist. May 21, 2020.
  9. ^ a b "China's power & steel firms continue to invest in coal even as emissions surge cools down" (PDF). Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-08-20.
  10. ^ "How bad is China's energy crisis?". the Guardian. 2021-09-29. Retrieved 2021-10-03.
  11. ^ Seidel, Jamie (2021-10-01). "China's growing electricity crisis". news.com.au — Australia’s leading news site. Retrieved 2021-10-03.
  12. ^ Shukman, David (2018-11-22). "Is China behind global coal power surge?". Archived from the original on 2019-07-09. Retrieved 2019-05-19.
  13. ^ "China's Xi Jinping promises to halt new coal projects abroad amid climate crisis". cnn. Retrieved 2021-10-03.
  14. ^ "Ancient China". Alberta Culture and Tourims. Retrieved 13 December 2020.
  15. ^ Cartwright, Megan. "A Brief History of Coal". WorldWide RS. Retrieved 13 December 2020.
  16. ^ a b c d e f g h Wright, Tim (1984). Coal Mining in China's Economy and Society 1895–1937. Great Britain: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521258782.
  17. ^ a b "Unearthing Ancient Mysteries". Alberta Culture and Tourims. Retrieved 13 December 2020.
  18. ^ "Why is coal so important to China's economy?". South China Morning Post. 2021-02-13. Retrieved 2021-09-12.
  19. ^ Turland, Jesse (2021-09-29). "Coal Shortages Force Blackouts Across China". The Diplomat. Retrieved 2021-10-11.
  20. ^ "Which countries have the highest coal reserves in the world?". www.mining-technology.com. 6 January 2020. Retrieved 2021-09-12.
  21. ^ "Nuclear Power in China". Country Profiles. World Nuclear Association. 2021. Retrieved 2021-10-11. While coal is the main energy source, most reserves are in the north or northwest and present an enormous logistical problem – nearly half the country's rail capacity is used in transporting coal.
  22. ^ Kemp, John (2021-09-28). "China coal production, transportation and consumption" (PDF). Energy. Thomson Reuters. p. 2. Retrieved 2021-10-11. Coal accounts for >40% of all freight tonne-kms on the rail network
  23. ^ "Country analysis briefs: China". Energy Information Administration. August 2006. Archived from the original on 2011-08-21. Retrieved 2008-07-02.
  24. ^ Reuters Staff (2021-03-03). "China's coal consumption seen rising in 2021, imports steady". Reuters. Retrieved 2021-09-12. {{cite news}}: |author= has generic name (help)
  25. ^ a b "BP Statistical Review 2019" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 December 2019. Retrieved 22 March 2020.
  26. ^ IEA Key World Energy Statistics 2018, 2017, Archived 2014-10-21(Date mismatch) at the Wayback Machine, "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original on 2014-11-03. Retrieved 2019-08-13.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link), 2012 Archived 2013-03-09 at the Wayback Machine, 2011 Archived 2011-10-27 at the Wayback Machine, 2010 Archived 2010-10-11 at the Wayback Machine, 2009 Archived 2013-10-07 at the Wayback Machine, 2006 Archived 2009-10-12 at the Wayback Machine IEA coal production p. 15, electricity p. 25 and 27
  27. ^ IEA Coal Information Overview 2019, 2017 Archived 2019-08-13 at the Wayback Machine
  28. ^ "China's 7 Coal Mining Companies Realized Production Capacity of 100 Mln Tonnes in 2011". China Mining Association. 2012-02-01. Archived from the original on 2012-08-04. Retrieved 2012-06-03.
  29. ^ Le, Reggie (2012-04-05). "China's Jizhong Energy mines 31 million mt of coal, up 10% on year". Platts. Retrieved 2012-06-03.
  30. ^ Buckley, Chris (3 November 2015). "China Burns Much More Coal Than Reported, Complicating Climate Talks". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 25 July 2018. Retrieved 13 October 2017.
  31. ^ "China's largest open-pit coal mine ready for production". Xinhua News Agency. October 19, 2008. Archived from the original on October 23, 2008. Retrieved 2010-08-04.
  32. ^ "China’s Growth Leads to Problems Down the Road" Archived 2017-03-18 at the Wayback Machine "Mongolian coal production has exploded — up 37 percent to 637 million tons last year alone, with an additional 15 percent increase expected this year." article by Michael Wines in The New York Times August 27, 2010, accessed August 28, 2010
  33. ^ Chuin-Wei Yap (20 October 2021). "China Takes the Brakes Off Coal Production to Tackle Power Shortage". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 17 November 2021. China has ordered all coal mines to operate at full capacity [...] It has ordered all coal mines to operate at full capacity even during holidays, issued approvals for new mines [...] China's rollback of restrictions on mining and imports of coal
  34. ^ a b Hui, Mary (26 August 2021). "China's boycott of Australia has redirected global flows of coal". Quartz. Retrieved 2021-09-08.
  35. ^ a b "China Wants To Go Carbon-Neutral — And Won't Stop Burning Coal To Get There". NPR.org. Retrieved 2021-09-12.
  36. ^ "China eyes more coal imports from Mongolia as supply shortage bites". The Star. Retrieved 2021-09-11.
  37. ^ Zhou, Analysts Oceana; Liang, Analyst Cindy (2021-04-26). "China set to cap coal consumption, boost domestic oil & gas output in 2021". www.spglobal.com. Retrieved 2021-09-11.
  38. ^ "Coal and Peat in China, People's Republic of in 2007". International Energy Agency (IEA). Archived from the original on 2013-09-14. Retrieved 2010-08-04.
  39. ^ Other Transformation refers to an energy transformation process not in the preceding list of electricity, industry, or heat. For the case of coal, this is likely to include losses, own use, gains, or liquefaction. Reference: [1] Archived 2011-07-26 at the Wayback Machine.
  40. ^ "Chinese coal plant approvals slum after Xi climate pledge". South China Morning Post. 2021-08-25. Retrieved 2021-09-06.
  41. ^ a b Yihe (58af0734c2bad), Xu (2021-09-01). "China curbs coal-fired power expansion, giving way to renewables | Upstream Online". Upstream Online | Latest oil and gas news. Retrieved 2021-09-06.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  42. ^ Cheng, Evelyn (2021-04-29). "China has 'no other choice' but to rely on coal power for now, official says". CNBC. Retrieved 2021-09-06.
  43. ^ Welle (www.dw.com), Deutsche. "China generated half of global coal power in 2020: study | DW | 29.03.2021". DW.COM. Retrieved 2021-09-06.
  44. ^ a b "Why China is struggling to wean itself from coal | Hellenic Shipping News Worldwide". www.hellenicshippingnews.com. Retrieved 2021-09-06.
  45. ^ Gray, Matt; Sundaresan, Sriya (April 2020). Political decisions, economic realities: The underlying operating cashflows of coal power during COVID-19 (Report). Carbon Tracker. p. 19.
  46. ^ China's New Growth Pathway: From the 14th Five-Year Plan to Carbon Neutrality (PDF) (Report). Energy Foundation China. December 2020. p. 24.
  47. ^ Staff (2021-09-02). "China puts price controls on domestic metallurgical coal: sources". www.spglobal.com. Retrieved 2021-09-11.
  48. ^ Robert B. Finkelman, Harvey E. Belkin, and Baoshan Zheng. Health impacts of domestic coal use in China Archived 2016-01-22 at the Wayback Machine. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1999 March 30; 96(7): 3427–3431.
  49. ^ Hu, Zhanping (2021). "De-Coalizing Rural China: A Critical Examination of the Coal to Clean Heating Project from a Policy Process Perspective". Frontiers in Energy Research. 9. doi:10.3389/fenrg.2021.707492.
  50. ^ Environmental Health Perspectives. Household Air Pollution from Coal and Biomass Fuels in China: Measurements, Health Impacts, and Interventions Archived 2017-02-02 at the Wayback Machine. Received July 3, 2006; Accepted February 27, 2007.
  51. ^ Ritchie, Hannah; Roser, Max (2020-05-11). "CO₂ and Greenhouse Gas Emissions". Our World in Data.
  52. ^ Ritchie, Hannah; Roser, Max (2020-05-11). "CO₂ and Greenhouse Gas Emissions". Our World in Data.
  53. ^ Nesbit, Jeff. "China finances most coal plants built today – it's a climate problem and why US-China talks are essential". The Conversation. Retrieved 2021-09-06.
  54. ^ Spencer,Richard "Pollution kills 750,000 in China every year" Archived 2013-11-17 at the Wayback Machine The Telegraph UK, 4 July 2007
  55. ^ Andrews-Speed, Philip (November 2014). "China's Energy Policymaking Processes and Their Consequences". The National Bureau of Asian Research Energy Security Report. Archived from the original on July 22, 2018. Retrieved December 24, 2014.
  56. ^ "South China town unrest cools after dialogue" Archived 2014-01-31 at the Wayback Machine Associated Foreign Press, 23 December 2011
  57. ^ a b Bawden, Tom "China agrees to impose carbon targets by 2016" Archived 2017-08-27 at the Wayback Machine The Independent, 21 May 2013
  58. ^ "America wants China to end support for coal projects abroad". The Economist. 2021-09-04. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 2021-09-06.
  59. ^ Cohen, Armond (April 21, 2014). "Learning from China: A Blueprint for the Future of Coal in Asia?". The National Bureau of Asian Research. Archived from the original on June 29, 2017. Retrieved August 8, 2014.
  60. ^ "Chinese government demand coal companies begin to pay for bad air". Greenpeace East Asia. 2011-09-26. Archived from the original on 2011-10-06. Retrieved 2011-09-26.
  61. ^ Chen, Kathy; Tom Miles (22 May 2015). "Beijing promises coal-free power by 2017 to fight pollution". Reuters. Archived from the original on 5 September 2015. Retrieved 2015-11-25.
  62. ^ Mines and Communities Website. A Burning Issue Archived 2008-02-22 at the Wayback Machine. February 14, 2003.
  63. ^ Xinhua. N China to put out some coalfield fires by 2012 Archived 2010-06-11 at the Wayback Machine. 2010-06-04
  64. ^ World Investment Report 2007: Transition Corporations, Extractive Industries United Nations Conference on Trade and Development page 149
  65. ^ "List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor". www.dol.gov. Archived from the original on 19 March 2018. Retrieved 13 October 2017.
  66. ^ "WHO Disease and injury country estimates". World Health Organization. 2009. Archived from the original on November 11, 2009. Retrieved Nov 11, 2009.
  67. ^ China and Coal. Archived November 16, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
  68. ^ Financial Times. 750,000 a year killed by Chinese pollution Archived 2009-12-13 at the Wayback Machine. July 2, 2007.
    released version of the report: [2] Archived 2008-09-04 at the Wayback Machine
  69. ^ Xinhua. China to ban small coal mines for improving pit safety record Archived 2008-10-21 at the Wayback Machine. August 15, 2008.
  70. ^ a b "42 Reported Dead, and 66 Trapped, in China Mine Accident" Archived 2017-03-17 at the Wayback Machine by the Associated Press, via The New York Times. November 21, 2009. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
  71. ^ World Socialist Website. China’s coal mining deaths spiral Archived 2008-02-05 at the Wayback Machine. August 3, 2002.
  72. ^ International Herald Tribune. Chinese coal industry in need of a helping hand Archived 2014-08-11 at the Wayback Machine
  73. ^ "China's coalmine death toll drops 7.5% in 2010". Archived from the original on 2017-02-22. Retrieved 2013-01-14.
  74. ^ "20 Die in Coal Mine Plunge – China Digital Times (CDT)". 25 September 2012. Archived from the original on 15 January 2013. Retrieved 13 October 2017.
  75. ^ Mines and Communities Website. China and US coal disasters Archived 2014-05-17 at the Wayback Machine. 7th January 2006.
  76. ^ TURKEY MINING 2018 (PDF). Global Business Reports. p. 35. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2019-05-17. Retrieved 2019-05-17.
  77. ^ Runyon, Jennifer (2021-06-23). "Report: New solar is cheaper to build than to run existing coal plants in China, India and most of Europe". Renewable Energy World.
  78. ^ a b "CHINA'S CARBON NEUTRAL OPPORTUNITY" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-02-28.
  79. ^ Kahrl, Fredrich; Lin, Jiang; Liu, Xu; Hu, Junfeng (2021-09-24). "Sunsetting coal power in China". iScience. 24 (9): 102939. Bibcode:2021iSci...24j2939K. doi:10.1016/j.isci.2021.102939. ISSN 2589-0042. PMC 8379489. PMID 34458696.
  80. ^ "India and China Can Quit Coal Earlier, But the World Must Work Alongside Them". thediplomat.com. Retrieved 2021-12-30.
  81. ^ "Coal should play no part in post-coronavirus recoveries, U.N. chief says". Reuters. 2020-07-24. Retrieved 2020-08-28.
  82. ^ "Kerry: China's Coal Binge Could 'Undo' Global Capacity to Meet Climate Targets | Voice of America – English". www.voanews.com. Retrieved 2021-09-11.

Further reading

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Coal in China.
Wikinews has related news:
Organizations
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coal_in_China&oldid=1118179451"