Manuel Belgrano
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Manuel José Joaquín del Corazón de Jesús Belgrano, usually referred to as Manuel Belgrano (3 June 1770 – 20 June 1820) was an Argentine economist, lawyer, politician, and military leader, born in Buenos Aires, the fourth child of the Italian businessman Domingo Belgrano y Peri and Josefa Casero. He took part in the Argentine Wars of Independence and created the Flag of Argentina.
Belgrano was a notable member of the criollo population of Buenos Aires, and worked for its emancipation from Spain. At first he promoted the aspirations of Carlota Joaquina to became the rule of the viceroyalty, but without success. With other criollos he promoted the May Revolution, removing the viceroy Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros from power, as was elected as member of the Primera Junta that took power after him. He was chosen as commander of the Army of the North and, despite being defeated by the Spanish forces, he paved the way for the independence of Paraguay in 1811. In 1812 he created the flag of Argentina near the city of Rosario, and directed the exodus of Jujuy, that lead to the victories against the royalists in the battles of Salta and Tucuman. He took part of the Congress of Tucuman, promoting the idea to establish a monarchy with an Inca king, but didn't get enough support. He died on 20 June 1820.
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[edit] Biography
[edit] Birth and studies
Manuel José Joaquín del Corazón de Jesús Belgrano was born in Buenos Aires on June 3, 1770, at his father's house. This near the Santo Domingo convent. He was baptized at the Buenos Aires Metropolitan Cathedral the following day. By being born in America he was considered a criollo. His father Domenico was Italian, his Italian last name was Peri, which he translated the Spanish form Pérez, but later changed it to Belgrano as being a name that denoted good wheat production. He was a European merchant authorized by the King of Spain to move to America. Belgrano's mother was María Josefa González Casero, born in the city of Santiago del Estero.
Domingo had a success as merchant that allowed him to send his two sons Francisco and Manuel to study in Europe. He expected them to study commerce, but Manuel decided to study as lawyer instead. Belgrano developed such a high success and prestige that pope Pius VI allowed him to study all kinds of forbidden literature, even books deemed as heretic, with the only exception of obscene books. This way he came into contact with authors like Montesquieu, Rousseau and Filangieri, which were forbidden in Spain.
Belgrano studied near the intellectual elite of Spain, and by that time there were heated discussions about the ongoing French Revolution. Critics to the divine right of kings, the principles of equality and freedom and the universal scope of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen were constant topics of debate. Among these people it was thought that Spain should be remade under similar principles, and critics of such ideas were rejected as tyrants or symphatizers of outdated ideas.
Belgrano studied as well living languajes, politic economy and public right. The authors that most influenced him were Campomanes, Jovellanos, Adam Smith and Quesnay. His main topics of interest in the works of such authors were those referred to the public good and popular prosperity. He developed the idea that the principles of phisiocracy and those stated by Adam Smith could be complemented and applied in the viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata.
[edit] Work in the Consulate
A short time before his return to Buenos Aires, Belgrano was elected as perpetual secretary of the Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires, a new born local institution which dealt with commercial and industrial issues in the name of the crown. He would stay in this office up to 1810. Here he would deal with commercial disputes and promote agriculture, industry and commerce. Not having enough freedom to make big changes in the economic system, he made big effords in improving education. Being influenced by Campomanes, he believed that the true wealth of countries was in their formation, and that the best way to promote industrialisation was through education.
Belgrano maintained frequent discussions with the vocals of the Consulate, who were all merchants with strong inerests involved in the monopolic commerce with Cadiz. He made many proposals, influenced by free trade ideas, that were rejected by the vocals. By this time, Belgrano thought that "The merchant must have freedom to buy where he can be better accommodated, and it's natural that he does where he is supplied with the cheapest gender to be able to earn the best profit". However, he could manage to get some success, such as creating the Nautical school, the Commerce school or the Geometry and Drawing Academy. He created the Commerce School to influence future merchants into working towards the best interests of the nation, and the nautical and drawig ones to provide the youh with prestigious and lucrative works. Those last ones worked under the same institution, next to the Consulate, so that Belgrano could easily supervise their development. Those schools worked for three years and were closed by a ruling of Manuel Godoy, from the Spanish monarchy, who considered it an unnecessary luxury for a colony. Belgrano opined that the promotion of education "could not but disgust those whose interest was based in the ignorance and dejection of their naturals".
He helped to create the first newspaper of the city, the Telégrafo Mercantil, directed by Francisco Cabello y Mesa. Here he worked with Manuel José de Lavardén, and edited nearly two hundred issues. The newspaper was closed in 1802 because of conflicts with the authorities of the viceroyalty, who did not like the soft critics made in it or the jokes and parodies. He also worked in the Semanario de Agricultura, Comercio e Industria, directed by Hipólito Vieytes. He used this newspaper to explain his economic ideas: manufacturing and exporting finished goods, import raw materials to manufacture, don't import raw materials that could be produced or extracted locally or luxury products, import only vital products, and own a merchant navy. The newspaper was specialized on "Philosophy of History, Geography and Statistics". Many of the revolutionary principles were concocted by these readings.[1]
Belgrano had syntomps of syphilis, which he had cought during his time in Europe. This sickness forced him to take long leaves from his work in the Consulate, and to suggest his cousin Juan José Castelli, with similar ideas, as a possible replacement. The rejection of the vocals delayed the approal of Castelli up to 1796.
[edit] British Invasions
Belgrano was designated as captain of the urban militias in 1797 by viceroy Pedro de Melo. Belgrano worked by then in the consulate, and had no interest in the pursuit of a military career. Viceroy Sobremonte requested him later to create a militia to counter a possible British attack, but he didn't took interest in it. This leads to his first intervention in a military conflict, when the British William Carr Beresford arrived with 1.600 men and took Buenos Aires, starting the British invasions of the Río de la Plata. Belgrano moved to the fortress as soon as he heard the warning, and gathered many men to try a resistance. But without knowledge on the field, his men marched in disorder and Belgrano was ordered to disband after a single British cannon shot.
After taking the city, all Spanish authorities were requested to pledge allegiance to the British crown. The whole consulate submitted to this request, except Belgrano, who said that "we want the old master or no one". He escaped from Buenos Aires and seek asylum at the chapel of Mercedes, in the Banda Oriental.
The British army was defeated by an army under the direction of Santiago de Liniers, and the Spanish authority was restored. However, it was expected that the British would return, and the whole city started to prepare against the possibility. Belgrano returned to Buenos Aires after the reconquest, and put himself under the command of Liniers. He was designed as sergeant of the Patricians Regiment, under the command of Cornelio Saavedra, and he started to study military strategy. After some conflicts with other officials he resigned as sergeant and served again under the command of Liniers. During the battle he served as field assistance of a division commanded by Balviani. After the successful resistance Belgrano resumed his work in the Consulate and left again his military studies.
[edit] Carlotism
Manuel Belgrano was the main proponent of the Carlotist political movement in the Rio de la Plata. It was a response to recent developments in Europe, where Spain was at war with France and, through the abdications of Bayonne, the Spanish king Ferdinand VII was deposed and imprisoned, and the french Joseph Bonaparte was designated king of Spain by the French victors. This led to a partial power vacuum in the viceroyalty, as the legitimacy of the new king was rejected by all parties. The purpose of the carlotist movement was to replace the authority of the deposed king with that of Carlota Joaquina, sister of Ferdinand, living in Rio de Janeiro by then. The project was supported as a mean to achieve more autonomy, and perhaps independence. Belgrano kept a fluent mail talking with Carlota, and convinced many independentists to join him in the project, such as Castelli, Vieytes, Nicolás Rodríguez Peña or Juan José Paso. The support of Cornelio Saavedra for Carlota is disputed.
The project, however, found strong resistance. Being married with a prince of Portugal, many people though that carlotism was a trick to conceal Portuguese expansionism. Carlota herself had different political ideas than those of her supporters: Belgrano and the other people mentioned shared the ideas of enlightenment, but Carlota aspired to keep the full power of an absolutist monarchy. By 1810, the project was forgotten.
A new viceroy, Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros, replaced Liniers. Belgrano convinced him to edit a new newspaper, the "Correo de Comercio". This allowed him to make gatherings with other revolutionary leaders, with the excuse of discussing the newspaper development. He also supported the opening of the port to foreign trade, ruled by Cisneros but under strong rejection from Spanish merchants. Some people suggest that the "Representación de los Hacendados", commonly attributed to Mariano Moreno, was actually Belgrano's work.
He resigned from his work in the Consulate in April 1810 and moved to the countryside. However, a short time later he received a letter from his friends, requesting him to return to Buenos Aires and join the revolutionary movements.
[edit] The May Revolution
The Peninsular War between Spain and France wasn't developing favorably for Spain, and by May 1810 a ship arrived with the news of the fall of Seville and the disband of the Junta of Seville. Without either a recognized Spanish king or the Junta that designated Cisneros, many people thought that the viceroy had no longer any authority.
Viceroy Cisneros tried to conceal the news by gathering all the newspapers bringed in the ship, but Belgrano and Castelli managed to get one. Failing to keep the news secret, Cisneros tells the European developments to the public. Belgrano and the members of the carlotist party, despite having given up their original idea, plotted to remove the viceroy and replace him with a Junta, and by advise of Cornelio Saavedra they waited for the mentioned news to take action.[2]
Cisneros called the military leaders and requested them support, but they denied it. Afterwards, they requested an Open Cabildo, which Cisneros accepted to celebrate. A massive demonstration the following day ensured that Cisneros would keep his word. The open cabildo was celebrated on May 23, with a final result of removing Cisneros and creating a Junta instead. However, the Junta created after it retained Cisneros as president, which was rejected by the people. A great state of turmoil ended when this Junta was disbanded on May 25 and replaced by the Primera Junta. Belgrano was included in this one, among many other local politicians.
[edit] War of independence
After the Spanish rule was overthrown by the May Revolution of 1810, Belgrano was appointed general by the first autonomous government of Argentina. Shortly after his assignment, Belgrano led an ill-fated military campaign to Paraguay, still held by Spanish loyalists. The Argentine expedition, although beaten off, eventually prompted the Paraguayan declaration of independence on May 1811. In 1812, he created the national flag of Argentina; it was raised for the first time on 27 February of that year, on an island in the Paraná River, opposite the city of Rosario. He also led the Jujuy Exodus (Éxodo Jujeño), which prepared the ground for victories of the Argentine War of Independence in the northwest of the country: Battle of Tucumán (24 September 1812) and Battle of Salta (20 February 1813); these victories ensured Argentine authority in the northwest and stopped Royalist advance into central territory. Although there were a number of colonialist 'invasions' from Upper Peru until 1821, Belgrano's campaign is widely considered the decisive one.
Belgrano was one of the leaders of the Argentine Declaration of Independence, promulgated on 9 July 1816. He proposed that Argentina should have a constitutional monarchy led by an Inca descendant, but this idea didn't gain support.
Belgrano's health suffered greatly during his multiple expeditions and campaigns, held in generally bad conditions. At the age of 50 he died of dropsy, very poor and practically forgotten by the national government that he had served.
[edit] Commemoration
Today, however, Belgrano is considered one of the greatest heroes in Argentina's History. A monument complex (Monumento Nacional à la Bandera, National Flag Memorial) was built in 1957 in honor of the flag, in Rosario. The Flag Memorial and the park that surround it are the seat of national celebrations every Flag Day, on 20 June, the anniversary of Belgrano's death.
The cruiser ARA General Belgrano, which was sunk during the Falklands War, was named after him. A small town in the province of Córdoba, Argentina, Villa General Belgrano, also bears his name, as well as a lot of other small towns, departments and places, like Avenida Belgrano in the City of Buenos Aires, and part of the avenue that leads to the Flag Memorial in Rosario (Avenida Belgrano). Additionally, there is a northern neighborhood within Buenos Aires city that carries the name Belgrano.
In the museum Casa de la Libertad at Sucre, Bolivia there is an Argentine flag, protected by a glass case and in a deteriorated condition, which they claim to be the original one, raised by Belgrano for first time in 1812. The ensign was abandoned and hidden inside a small church near Macha, after the battle of Ayohuma, during the ill-fated second campaign to Upper Peru, led by Belgrano.
In Genoa, Italy, there is a commemorative statue of Belgrano, at the end of the Corso Buenos Aires.
[edit] Numismatics
Belgrano appears in an important number of currencies in the numismatic history of Argentina. He had appeared for the first time in the Peso Ley 18.188, in the banknotes of 1, 5 and 10 pesos. He was later included in the 10.000 pesos banknotes of the pesos argentinos, the highest banknote value in circulation. The Australes had chosen a number of procers that did not include Belgrano, but later the 10.000 pesos argentinos banknotes were allowed to be used as australes. The Peso, modern currency of Argentina, includes Belgrano in the banknotes of 10 pesos. The 1997 and 2002 series only modified small details.
[edit] Notes
- ^ Mitre, Bartolomé: Historia de Belgrano. Buenos Aires, 1859, v.1, pp. 202-206.
- ^ Saavedra, Cornelio (2009). Memoria autógrafa. Buenos Aires: Editorial del nuevo extremo. pp. 59. ISBN 978-987-609-171-8. "Spanish: A la verdad, quién era en aquel tiempo el que no juzgase que Napoleón triunfaría y realizaría sus planes con la España? Esto era lo que yo esperaba muy en breve, la oportunidad o tiempo que creía conveniente para dar el grito de libertad en estas partes. Esta era la breva que decía era útil esperar que madurase.
English: At the hour of truth, who was there in that time that did not consider that Napoleon would triumph and make his plans with the Spain? This was what I expected soon, the chance or time I deemed convenient to give the freedom cry in those parts. This was the fig I said it was useful to wait to get rip."
[edit] External links
- Instituto Nacional Belgraniano (Spanish)
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