Islamization of East Jerusalem under Jordanian rule: Difference between revisions
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'''Islamization of Jerusalem under Jordanian occupation'''<ref name=Israeli>Raphael Israeli, Jerusalem divided: the armistice regime, 1947-1967, |
'''Islamization of Jerusalem under Jordanian occupation'''<ref name=Israeli>Raphael Israeli, Jerusalem divided: the armistice regime, 1947-1967, |
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Volume 23 of Cass series--Israeli history, politics, and society, Psychology Press, 2002, p. 23.</ref><ref>"under Jordanian occupation since the 1948 Palestine war," Chicago Tribune, June 3, 1954</ref> refers to |
Volume 23 of Cass series--Israeli history, politics, and society, Psychology Press, 2002, p. 23.</ref><ref>"under Jordanian occupation since the 1948 Palestine war," Chicago Tribune, June 3, 1954</ref> refers to the view that Jordanian nationalists have sought to turn Jerusalem into an [[Islamization|Islamic]] city. |
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==Religious claims== |
==Religious claims== |
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| ⚫ | King [[Abdullah I of Jordan]] arrogated to himself the title of "Protector of Jerusalem," (''hami Bayt al-Maqdis''), a title formerly in use by the Ottoman sultan.<ref name=Katz>''Jordanian Jerusalem; Holy Places and National Spaces,'' Kimberly Katz, University Press of Florida, 2005, p. 9.</ref> He made frequent visits to the city and often attended prayers in the [[Al-Aqsa Mosque]].<ref name="Katz"/> |
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| ⚫ | King [[Abdullah I of Jordan]] arrogated to himself the title of "Protector of Jerusalem," (''hami Bayt al-Maqdis''), a title formerly in use by the Ottoman sultan.<ref name=Katz>''Jordanian Jerusalem; Holy Places and National Spaces,'' Kimberly Katz, University Press of Florida, 2005, p. 9.</ref> He made frequent visits to the city and often attended prayers in the [[Al-Aqsa Mosque]].<ref name=Katz |
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==Demands for internationalization== |
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Jordan "ignored" calls form the Vatican and the international community to internationalize the city.<ref name=Katz>''Jordanian Jerusalem; Holy Places and National Spaces,'' Kimberly Katz, University Press of Florida, 2005, p. 66.</ref> The Jordanian government withstood British and American pressure to implement the 1947 [[United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine]].<ref name=Katz>''Jordanian Jerusalem; Holy Places and National Spaces,'' Kimberly Katz, University Press of Florida, 2005, p. 66.</ref> King Abdullah and the government of Jordan also refused the 1949 effort by the [[Arab League]] to internationalize the city.<ref name=Katz>''Jordanian Jerusalem; Holy Places and National Spaces,'' Kimberly Katz, University Press of Florida, 2005, p. 66.</ref> At no point did the international community recognize Jordan's right to control Jerusalem or the Holy Places it contains.<ref name=Katz>''Jordanian Jerusalem; Holy Places and National Spaces,'' Kimberly Katz, University Press of Florida, 2005, p. 72-3.</ref><ref name=Machaud>"L. Machaud-Emin, 'Jerusalem 1948-1967 vs. 1967-2007: Comparing the Israeli and Jordanian Record', in GLORIA Center, The Interdisciplinary Center (IDC) Herzliya, 2007.</ref> |
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==Treatment of Christians== |
==Treatment of Christians== |
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The Jordanian Public Education law passed on 15 April 1955 altered the nature of Christian schools in Jerusalem not only by requiring that all instruction be exclusively in Arabic (replacing French and English as languages of instruction) and that the Jordanian national curriculum and textbooks be used, but by requiring the schools to close on Fridays and on "all Muslim holidays."<ref name=Katz>''Jordanian Jerusalem; Holy Places and National Spaces,'' Kimberly Katz, University Press of Florida, 2005, p. 97.</ref><ref name=BatYeor/> Thomas Wikeley, Consul General for the United Kingdom in Jerusalem protested that the Jordanian government was "not allowed to ride roughshod over long established rights in Jerusalem," and reiterated Britain's demand for the internationalization of the city.<ref name=Katz>''Jordanian Jerusalem; Holy Places and National Spaces,'' Kimberly Katz, University Press of Florida, 2005, p. 97-98.</ref> |
The Jordanian Public Education law passed on 15 April 1955 altered the nature of Christian schools in Jerusalem not only by requiring that all instruction be exclusively in Arabic (replacing French and English as languages of instruction) and that the Jordanian national curriculum and textbooks be used, but by requiring the schools to close on Fridays and on "all Muslim holidays."<ref name=Katz>''Jordanian Jerusalem; Holy Places and National Spaces,'' Kimberly Katz, University Press of Florida, 2005, p. 97.</ref><ref name=BatYeor/> Thomas Wikeley, Consul General for the United Kingdom in Jerusalem protested that the Jordanian government was "not allowed to ride roughshod over long established rights in Jerusalem," and reiterated Britain's demand for the internationalization of the city.<ref name=Katz>''Jordanian Jerusalem; Holy Places and National Spaces,'' Kimberly Katz, University Press of Florida, 2005, p. 97-98.</ref> |
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==Jews barred== |
==Jews barred== |
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| ⚫ | During the Jordanian occupation, entry to the city was barred to Israelis.<ref name="Israeli"/> Jews were forbidden to enter the city even briefly for purposes of prayer, and denied the right to pray on the [[Temple Mount]] and at the [[Western Wall]].<ref name=Katz>''Jordanian Jerusalem; Holy Places and National Spaces,'' Kimberly Katz, University Press of Florida, 2005, p. 66.</ref><ref name=Machaud>"L. Machaud-Emin, 'Jerusalem 1948-1967 vs. 1967-2007: Comparing the Israeli and Jordanian Record', in GLORIA Center, The Interdisciplinary Center (IDC) Herzliya, 2007.</ref>“throughout their occupation of East Jerusalem form 1948 to 1967, the Jordanians reneged on their commitments to permit Jews to have access to and to pray at the Western Wall.”<ref name=Kollek/> |
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During the Jordanian occupation, entry to the city was barred to Israelis.<ref name=Israeli>Raphael Israeli, Jerusalem divided: the armistice regime, 1947-1967, |
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A law specified that no Jew could be a citizen of Jordan.<ref name=BatYeor/> Jews were expelled and their homes and property confiscated and given to Muslims.<ref name=BatYeor/> |
A law specified that no Jew could be a citizen of Jordan.<ref name=BatYeor/> Jews were expelled and their homes and property confiscated and given to Muslims.<ref name=BatYeor/> |
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==Israelis of all faiths barred== |
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All citizens of Israel, including Muslim and Christian Arabs, were deprived access to Holy places in Jerusalem under Jordanian control from 1949-1967, with only a handful of exceptions made in individual cases.<ref>“The Status of Jerusalem: Some National and International Aspects,” S. Shepard Jones, ''Law and Contemporary Problems,'' Vol. 33, No. 1, The Middle East Crisis: Test ofInternational Law (Winter, 1968), pp. 169-182.</ref> |
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==Desecration of holy places== |
==Desecration of holy places== |
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The Jordanian government actively desecrated non-Muslim holy sites. 58 synagogues, all but one of the synagogues in the [[Old City (Jerusalem)|Old City]] were razed.<ref name=Israeli>Raphael Israeli, Jerusalem divided: the armistice regime, 1947-1967, |
The Jordanian government actively desecrated non-Muslim holy sites. 58 synagogues, all but one of the synagogues in the [[Old City (Jerusalem)|Old City]] were razed.<ref name=Israeli>Raphael Israeli, Jerusalem divided: the armistice regime, 1947-1967, |
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Volume 23 of Cass series--Israeli history, politics, and society, Psychology Press, 2002, p. 24.</ref><ref name=Machaud/> “There was a mass desecration of Jewish synagogues and other religious shrines were desecrated.”<ref name=Kollek/> |
Volume 23 of Cass series--Israeli history, politics, and society, Psychology Press, 2002, p. 24.</ref><ref name=Machaud/> “There was a mass desecration of Jewish synagogues and other religious shrines were desecrated.”<ref name=Kollek/> |
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Jewish graves in the ancient Jewish cemetery on the [[Mount of Olives]] were desecrated and the Jewish right to be buried there abrogated.<ref name=Israeli>Raphael Israeli, Jerusalem divided: the armistice regime, 1947-1967, |
Tens of thousands of Jewish graves in the ancient Jewish cemetery on the [[Mount of Olives]] were desecrated and the Jewish right to be buried there abrogated.<ref name=Israeli>Raphael Israeli, Jerusalem divided: the armistice regime, 1947-1967, |
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Volume 23 of Cass series--Israeli history, politics, and society, Psychology Press, 2002, p. 24.</ref><ref name=Machaud/> A hotel was constructed on the Mount of Olives, a site holy to both Jews and Christians.<ref name=Machaud/> The [[Seven Arches Hotel|Intercontinental Hotel]] was constructed at the summit of the Mount of Olives along with a road built through the cemetery destroying hundreds of Jewish graves, some from the First Temple Period.<ref>{{ |
Volume 23 of Cass series--Israeli history, politics, and society, Psychology Press, 2002, p. 24.</ref><ref name=Machaud/> A hotel was constructed on the Mount of Olives, a site holy to both Jews and Christians.<ref name=Machaud/> The [[Seven Arches Hotel|Intercontinental Hotel]] was constructed at the summit of the Mount of Olives along with a road built through the cemetery destroying hundreds of Jewish graves, some from the First Temple Period.<ref>{{Cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/10/world/middleeast/10jerusalem.html?_r=1&pagewanted=2&em | work=The New York Times | title=Parks Fortify Israel's Claim to Jerusalem | first1=Ethan | last1=Bronner | first2=Isabel | last2=Kershner | date=2009-05-10 | accessdate=2010-03-27}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |
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| url = http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/talking/8_Jerusalem.html |
| url = http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/talking/8_Jerusalem.html |
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| title = Fact Sheets #8 - Jerusalem| accessdate = 2007-06-27 |
| title = Fact Sheets #8 - Jerusalem| accessdate = 2007-06-27 |
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| last = |
| last = |
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| first = |
| first = |
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| date = May 19, 2005 |
| date = May 19, 2005 |
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| publisher = [[Jewish Virtual Library]] |
| publisher = [[Jewish Virtual Library]] |
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}}</ref><ref>{{ |
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Alon|first=Amos|authorlink=Amos Elon|title=Jerusalem: Battlegrounds of Memory|publisher=Kodansha Int'l|location=New York|year=1995|pages=75|isbn=1568360991|quote=After 1967, it was discovered that tombstones had been removed from the ancient cemetery to pave the latrines of a nearby Jordanian army barrack.}}</ref> |
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“During the period of Jordanian rule in east Jerusalem (1948-1967), the Holy Places of Islam were fostered, but Christian sites were neglected and most of the Jewish sites were destroyed (many synagogues and gravestones in the cemetery on the Mount of Olives.)"<ref> |
“During the period of Jordanian rule in east Jerusalem (1948-1967), the Holy Places of Islam were fostered, but Christian sites were neglected and most of the Jewish sites were destroyed (many synagogues and gravestones in the cemetery on the Mount of Olives.)"<ref>''Whither Jerusalem?: proposals and positions concerning the future of Jerusalem,'' Moshe Hirsch, Deborah Housen-Couriel, Ruth Lapidoth, Mekhon Yerushalayim le-ḥeḳer Yiśraʼel, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1995, p. 159.</ref> |
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Enrico Molinaro characterized Jordanian destruction of Jewish religious buildings, holy sites and synagogues as “acts of vandalism” in “clear violation of the Status Quo/Modus Vivendi legal regime and other basic cultural and religious principles governing the Holy Places of Jerusalem, as well as customary or conventional international obligations applicable in time of war.”<ref>''The Holy Places of Jerusalem in Middle East Peace Agreements: The Conflict ...''Enrico Molinaro, Sussex Academic Press, 2010, p. 121.</ref> |
Enrico Molinaro characterized Jordanian destruction of Jewish religious buildings, holy sites and synagogues as “acts of vandalism” in “clear violation of the Status Quo/Modus Vivendi legal regime and other basic cultural and religious principles governing the Holy Places of Jerusalem, as well as customary or conventional international obligations applicable in time of war.”<ref>''The Holy Places of Jerusalem in Middle East Peace Agreements: The Conflict ...''Enrico Molinaro, Sussex Academic Press, 2010, p. 121.</ref> |
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==References== |
==References== |
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Islamization Of Jerusalem Under Jordanian Occupation}} |
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[[Category:Jerusalem]] |
[[Category:Jerusalem]] |
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[[Category:Islamization]] |
[[Category:Islamization|Jerusalem]] |
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[[Category:Israeli–Palestinian conflict]] |
[[Category:Israeli–Palestinian conflict]] |
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[[Category:Jews and Judaism in Jerusalem]] |
[[Category:Jews and Judaism in Jerusalem]] |
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Islamization of Jerusalem under Jordanian occupation[1][2] refers to the view that Jordanian nationalists have sought to turn Jerusalem into an Islamic city.
Religious claims
King Abdullah I of Jordan arrogated to himself the title of "Protector of Jerusalem," (hami Bayt al-Maqdis), a title formerly in use by the Ottoman sultan.[3] He made frequent visits to the city and often attended prayers in the Al-Aqsa Mosque.[3]
Treatment of Christians
The Jordanian Public Education law passed on 15 April 1955 altered the nature of Christian schools in Jerusalem not only by requiring that all instruction be exclusively in Arabic (replacing French and English as languages of instruction) and that the Jordanian national curriculum and textbooks be used, but by requiring the schools to close on Fridays and on "all Muslim holidays."[3][4] Thomas Wikeley, Consul General for the United Kingdom in Jerusalem protested that the Jordanian government was "not allowed to ride roughshod over long established rights in Jerusalem," and reiterated Britain's demand for the internationalization of the city.[3]
"There was a ban on the acquisition of land by Christian churches in any part of East Jerusalem.”[5]
“The Jordanians… imposed two restrictive laws. One forced Christian schools to give equal time to the Bible and the Koran; the other restricted Christian orders or foreigners form buying land or building churches.”[5]
“During nineteen years of Jordanian rule…(Arab) Christians tended to emigrate to North and South America.”[5]
Jordan "undertook to Islamize the Christian Quarter of the Old City of Jerusalem by laws forbidding Christians to buy land and houses and by establishing strict controls over their social and educational institutions."[4] The measures taken included building mosques adjacent to churches, permanently precluding any possibility of expanding the churches.[4]
Jerusalem mayor Teddy Kollek charged Jordan with "Islamizing and Arabizing the part of Jerusalem they occupied, a policy which gravely affected the national freedom and privileges of the Christian communities."[6]
Jews barred
During the Jordanian occupation, entry to the city was barred to Israelis.[1] Jews were forbidden to enter the city even briefly for purposes of prayer, and denied the right to pray on the Temple Mount and at the Western Wall.[3][7]“throughout their occupation of East Jerusalem form 1948 to 1967, the Jordanians reneged on their commitments to permit Jews to have access to and to pray at the Western Wall.”[5]
A law specified that no Jew could be a citizen of Jordan.[4] Jews were expelled and their homes and property confiscated and given to Muslims.[4]
Desecration of holy places
The Jordanian government actively desecrated non-Muslim holy sites. 58 synagogues, all but one of the synagogues in the Old City were razed.[1][7] “There was a mass desecration of Jewish synagogues and other religious shrines were desecrated.”[5]
Tens of thousands of Jewish graves in the ancient Jewish cemetery on the Mount of Olives were desecrated and the Jewish right to be buried there abrogated.[1][7] A hotel was constructed on the Mount of Olives, a site holy to both Jews and Christians.[7] The Intercontinental Hotel was constructed at the summit of the Mount of Olives along with a road built through the cemetery destroying hundreds of Jewish graves, some from the First Temple Period.[8][9][10]
“During the period of Jordanian rule in east Jerusalem (1948-1967), the Holy Places of Islam were fostered, but Christian sites were neglected and most of the Jewish sites were destroyed (many synagogues and gravestones in the cemetery on the Mount of Olives.)"[11]
Enrico Molinaro characterized Jordanian destruction of Jewish religious buildings, holy sites and synagogues as “acts of vandalism” in “clear violation of the Status Quo/Modus Vivendi legal regime and other basic cultural and religious principles governing the Holy Places of Jerusalem, as well as customary or conventional international obligations applicable in time of war.”[12]
See also
- Demographics of Jerusalem
- Islamization of Palestine
- Religious significance of Jerusalem
- Islamization of the Temple Mount
References
- ^ a b c d Raphael Israeli, Jerusalem divided: the armistice regime, 1947-1967, Volume 23 of Cass series--Israeli history, politics, and society, Psychology Press, 2002, p. 23. Cite error: The named reference "Israeli" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ "under Jordanian occupation since the 1948 Palestine war," Chicago Tribune, June 3, 1954
- ^ a b c d e Jordanian Jerusalem; Holy Places and National Spaces, Kimberly Katz, University Press of Florida, 2005, p. 9. Cite error: The named reference "Katz" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ a b c d e Islam and Dhimmitude: where civilizations collide, Bat Yeʼor, Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press, 2002, p. 235.
- ^ a b c d e “Jerusalem,” Teddy Kollek, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 55, No. 4 (Jul., 1977), pp. 701-716.
- ^ Discourse and Palestine: power, text and context, Annelies Moors, Het Spinhuis, 1995, p. 57.
- ^ a b c d "L. Machaud-Emin, 'Jerusalem 1948-1967 vs. 1967-2007: Comparing the Israeli and Jordanian Record', in GLORIA Center, The Interdisciplinary Center (IDC) Herzliya, 2007.
- ^ Bronner, Ethan; Kershner, Isabel (2009-05-10). "Parks Fortify Israel's Claim to Jerusalem". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-03-27.
- ^ "Fact Sheets #8 - Jerusalem". Jewish Virtual Library. May 19, 2005. Retrieved 2007-06-27.
- ^ Alon, Amos (1995). Jerusalem: Battlegrounds of Memory. New York: Kodansha Int'l. p. 75. ISBN 1568360991.
After 1967, it was discovered that tombstones had been removed from the ancient cemetery to pave the latrines of a nearby Jordanian army barrack.
- ^ Whither Jerusalem?: proposals and positions concerning the future of Jerusalem, Moshe Hirsch, Deborah Housen-Couriel, Ruth Lapidoth, Mekhon Yerushalayim le-ḥeḳer Yiśraʼel, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1995, p. 159.
- ^ The Holy Places of Jerusalem in Middle East Peace Agreements: The Conflict ...Enrico Molinaro, Sussex Academic Press, 2010, p. 121.