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==Diagnosis==
==Diagnosis==
The [[DSM-5]] (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual) and [[ICD-10]] (International Classification of Diseases) do not include NVLD as a diagnosis.<ref>Horn, Nnifer L., PhD, HSPP. "An Overview of Learning Disabilities." http://beaconindiana.com/pdfs/OverviewOfLDs.pdf San Mateo, CA: Schwab Learning, 2002. N. pag. Web.</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Rosemary |last=Tannock |date=January 2014 |title=DSM-5 Changes in Diagnostic Criteria for Specific Learning Disabilities (SLD): What are the Implications? |url=https://eida.org/dsm5-update/ |publisher=International Dyslexia Association }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=2015/16 ICD-10-CM Diagnosis Code F81.9: Developmental disorder of scholastic skills, unspecified |url=http://www.icd10data.com/ICD10CM/Codes/F01-F99/F80-F89/F81-/F81.9 |publisher=ICD10Data.com }}</ref>
The [[DSM-5]] (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual) and [[ICD-10]] (International Classification of Diseases) do not include NVLD as a diagnosis.<ref>Horn, Nnifer L., PhD, HSPP. "An Overview of Learning Disabilities." http://beaconindiana.com/pdfs/OverviewOfLDs.pdf San Mateo, CA: Schwab Learning, 2002. N. pag. Web.</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Rosemary |last=Tannock |date=January 2014 |title=DSM-5 Changes in Diagnostic Criteria for Specific Learning Disabilities (SLD): What are the Implications? |url=https://eida.org/dsm5-update/ |publisher=International Dyslexia Association }}</ref>


Assorted diagnoses have been discussed as sharing symptoms with NVLD. In some cases, especially the form of autism previously called [[Asperger syndrome]], the overlap can be so significant as to render NVLD a pointless duplication in the mind of its detractors, with the only difference being that NVLD criteria do not mention the presence or absence of either repetitive behaviors or narrow subject-matter interests.<ref name=":0" /> (These are not required for a diagnosis of autism.) These overlapping conditions include, among others:
Assorted diagnoses have been discussed as sharing symptoms with NVLD. In some cases, especially the form of autism previously called [[Asperger syndrome]], the overlap can be so significant as to render NVLD a pointless duplication in the mind of its detractors, with the only difference being that NVLD criteria do not mention the presence or absence of either repetitive behaviors or narrow subject-matter interests.<ref name=":0" /> (These are not required for a diagnosis of autism.) These overlapping conditions include, among others:
Line 61: Line 61:
* [[right hemisphere brain damage]] and developmental right hemisphere syndrome,<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite book |first1=Linda |last1=Wilmshurst |year=2014 |chapter=Sandy Smith: Marching to the Tune of a Different Drummer |pages=89–99 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TkcXBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA89 |title=Child and Adolescent Psychopathology: A Casebook |publisher=Sage |isbn=978-1-4833-2268-1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Cynthia A. |last1=Riccio |chapter=Dyscalculia |pages=769–70 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wdNpBchvdvQC&pg=PA769 |year=2007 |editor1-first=Cecil R. |editor1-last=Reynolds |editor2-first=Elaine |editor2-last=Fletcher-Janzen |title=Encyclopedia of Special Education |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-471-67798-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofsp0003unse |url-access=limited }}</ref>
* [[right hemisphere brain damage]] and developmental right hemisphere syndrome,<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite book |first1=Linda |last1=Wilmshurst |year=2014 |chapter=Sandy Smith: Marching to the Tune of a Different Drummer |pages=89–99 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TkcXBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA89 |title=Child and Adolescent Psychopathology: A Casebook |publisher=Sage |isbn=978-1-4833-2268-1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Cynthia A. |last1=Riccio |chapter=Dyscalculia |pages=769–70 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wdNpBchvdvQC&pg=PA769 |year=2007 |editor1-first=Cecil R. |editor1-last=Reynolds |editor2-first=Elaine |editor2-last=Fletcher-Janzen |title=Encyclopedia of Special Education |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-471-67798-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofsp0003unse |url-access=limited }}</ref>
* [[social-emotional processing disorder]],<ref>{{cite book |first1=Katherine |last1=Tsatsanis |chapter=Right-Hemisphere Syndrome |pages=2596–600 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4419-1698-3_1587 |editor1-first=Fred R. |editor1-last=Volkmar |year=2013 |title=Encyclopedia of Autism Spectrum Disorders |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4419-1698-3 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Manoach |first1=Dara Sue |last2=Sandson |first2=Thomas A. |last3=Weintraub |first3=Sandra |date=April 1995 |title=The Developmental Social-Emotional Processing Disorder Is Associated with Right Hemisphere Abnormalities |journal=Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology & Behavioral Neurology |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=99–105 |id={{INIST|3510330}} |url=http://journals.lww.com/cogbehavneurol/abstract/1995/04000/the_developmental_social_emotional_processing.3.aspx }}</ref>
* [[social-emotional processing disorder]],<ref>{{cite book |first1=Katherine |last1=Tsatsanis |chapter=Right-Hemisphere Syndrome |pages=2596–600 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4419-1698-3_1587 |editor1-first=Fred R. |editor1-last=Volkmar |year=2013 |title=Encyclopedia of Autism Spectrum Disorders |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4419-1698-3 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Manoach |first1=Dara Sue |last2=Sandson |first2=Thomas A. |last3=Weintraub |first3=Sandra |date=April 1995 |title=The Developmental Social-Emotional Processing Disorder Is Associated with Right Hemisphere Abnormalities |journal=Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology & Behavioral Neurology |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=99–105 |id={{INIST|3510330}} |url=http://journals.lww.com/cogbehavneurol/abstract/1995/04000/the_developmental_social_emotional_processing.3.aspx }}</ref>
* [[Gerstmann syndrome]].<ref name="pmid2181523">{{cite journal|last1=Semrud-Clikeman|first1=Margaret|last2=Hynd|first2=George W.|year=1990|title=Right hemisphere dysfunction in nonverbal learning disabilities: Social, academic, and adaptive functioning in adults and children|journal=Psychological Bulletin|volume=107|issue=2|pages=196–209|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.107.2.196|pmid=2181523}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Bonny J. |last1=Forrest |chapter=Developmental Gerstmann Syndrome |pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaclin00kreu/page/n890 826]–7 |doi=10.1007/978-0-387-79948-3_1540 |editor1-first=Jeffrey S. |editor1-last=Kreutzer |editor2-first=John |editor2-last=DeLuca |editor3-first=Bruce |editor3-last=Caplan |year=2011 |title=Encyclopedia of Clinical Neuropsychology |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaclin00kreu |url-access=limited |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-387-79948-3 }}</ref>
* [[Gerstmann syndrome]].<ref name="pmid2181523">{{cite journal|last1=Semrud-Clikeman|first1=Margaret|last2=Hynd|first2=George W.|year=1990|title=Right hemisphere dysfunction in nonverbal learning disabilities: Social, academic, and adaptive functioning in adults and children|journal=Psychological Bulletin|volume=107|issue=2|pages=196–209|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.107.2.196|pmid=2181523}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Bonny J. |last1=Forrest |chapter=Developmental Gerstmann Syndrome |pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaclin00kreu/page/n890 826]–7 |doi=10.1007/978-0-387-79948-3_1540 |editor1-first=Jeffrey S. |editor1-last=Kreutzer |editor2-first=John |editor2-last=DeLuca |editor3-first=Bruce |editor3-last=Caplan |year=2011 |title=Encyclopedia of Clinical Neuropsychology |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaclin00kreu |url-access=limited |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-387-79948-3 }}</ref>


== History ==
== History ==

Revision as of 12:09, 14 April 2021

Nonverbal learning disorder
Other namesNonverbal learning disability
SpecialtyNeurology/psychiatric

Nonverbal learning disorder (also known as NLD, or NVLD) is a proposed classification of neurodevelopmental disorder primarily characterized by impairments in visospacial intelligence.[1] Additional proposed diagnostic criteria include relatively good verbal intelligence, impairments in visuoconstructive and fine-motor coordination, good reading decoding together with low math performance, deficits in visuospatial memory and social skills.[2] "While NVLD is not classified into any distinct diagnosis in DSM-5 (American Psychiatric Association, 2013) or ICD-10 (World Health Organisation, 1992), it does have a robust research base."[3] "The majority of researchers and clinicians agree that the profile of NLD clearly exists...but they disagree on the need for a specific clinical category and on the criteria for its identification."[4] One researcher notes, "just because we cannot reasonably place such children into our present classification scheme does not mean they do not exist."[5]

There is diagnostic overlap between NLD and autism spectrum disorder, and some people consider them to be the same condition.[6][7] NVLD is sometimes mistaken for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.[6]

Cause

Research suggests that there is an association with right hemisphere brain damage involving the white matter.[6]

Signs and symptoms

A plain clock, with the hands pointing to 8:31
Using an analog clock to tell time is difficult for people with symptoms of NVLD.

Considered to be neurologically based,[8] nonverbal learning disorder is characterized by:

  • low visuospatial skills,
  • discrepancy between verbal skills and nonverbal skills such as visuospatial skills, visuoconstructive skills, fine-motor coordination skills, visuospatial memory skills, and mathematical achievement, and
  • low socioemotional skills.[9]

For example, people with NVLD symptoms have trouble understanding charts, reading maps, assembling jigsaw puzzles, or using an analog clock to tell time.[6]

Clumsiness is not unusual, especially in children. For example, it may take a child longer than usual to learn how to tie shoelaces or to ride a bicycle.[6]

At the beginning of the school career, children with symptoms of NVLD struggle with tasks such as coloring and using scissors that require eye–hand coordination, but often excel at memorizing verbal content, spelling, and reading once the shapes of the letters are learned.[6] The normal or superior verbal skills can cause the child's problems to be misdiagnosed as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, on the belief that the child is so smart that clumsiness or poor performance in visual areas must be due to inattention or a lack of effort.[6] There are also social deficits associated with nonverbal information, such as interpreting eye contact.[6] In their 1967 book Learning Disabilities; Educational Principles and Practices, Doris J. Johnson and Helmer R. Myklebust characterize how the children appear in a classroom: "An example is the child who fails to learn the meaning of the actions of others....We categorize this child as having a deficiency in social perception, meaning that he has an inability which precludes acquiring the significance of basic nonverbal aspects of daily living, though his verbal level of intelligence falls within or above the average."[10]

In the adolescent years, when schoolwork becomes more abstract and the executive demands for time management, organization, and social interactions increase, students begin to struggle.[6] They focus on separate details and struggle to summarize information or to integrate ideas into a coherent whole, and they struggle to apply knowledge to other situations, to infer implicit information, to make predictions, and to organize information logically.[6]

As adults, tasks such as driving a car or navigating to an unfamiliar location may be difficult.[6] Difficulty with keeping track of responsibilities or managing social interactions may affect job performance.[6]

Labels for specific associated issues include visual-spatial deficit,[11][12][13] dyscalculia,[14][15] dysgraphia,[16][17][18] as well as dyspraxia.[19][20]

Diagnosis

The DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual) and ICD-10 (International Classification of Diseases) do not include NVLD as a diagnosis.[21][22]

Assorted diagnoses have been discussed as sharing symptoms with NVLD. In some cases, especially the form of autism previously called Asperger syndrome, the overlap can be so significant as to render NVLD a pointless duplication in the mind of its detractors, with the only difference being that NVLD criteria do not mention the presence or absence of either repetitive behaviors or narrow subject-matter interests.[6] (These are not required for a diagnosis of autism.) These overlapping conditions include, among others:

History

While various nonverbal impairments were recognized since early studies in child neurology,[30] there is ongoing debate as to whether/or the extent to which existing conceptions of NVLD provide a valid diagnostic framework.[31][32]

As presented in 1967, "nonverbal disabilities" (p. 44) or "disorders of nonverbal learning" was a category encompassing non-linguistic learning problems.[10] "Nonverbal learning disabilities" were further discussed by Myklebust in 1975 as representing a subtype of learning disability with a range of presentations involving "mainly visual cognitive processing," social imperception, a gap between higher verbal ability and lower performance IQ, as well as difficulty with handwriting.[33] Later neuropsychologist Byron Rourke[34] sought to develop consistent criteria with a theory and model of brain functioning that would establish NVLD as a distinct syndrome (1989).[35]

Questions remain about how best to frame the perceptual, cognitive and motor issues associated with NVLD.[8][36][37][38]

See also

References

  1. ^ Mammarella, Irene C.; Cornoldi, Cesare (4 May 2014). "An analysis of the criteria used to diagnose children with Nonverbal Learning Disability (NLD)". Child Neuropsychology. 20 (3): 255–280. doi:10.1080/09297049.2013.796920. ISSN 0929-7049.
  2. ^ Mammarella, Irene C.; Cornoldi, Cesare (4 May 2014). "An analysis of the criteria used to diagnose children with Nonverbal Learning Disability (NLD)". Child Neuropsychology. 20 (3): 255–280. doi:10.1080/09297049.2013.796920. ISSN 0929-7049.
  3. ^ Brenchley, Celia; Costello, Shane (2 January 2018). "A model of assessment and intervention for Non-Verbal Learning Disability (NVLD) in the Australian education system: an educational and developmental psychologist perspective". Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties. 23 (1): 67–86. doi:10.1080/19404158.2018.1467936. ISSN 1940-4158.
  4. ^ Brenchley, Celia; Costello, Shane (2 January 2018). "A model of assessment and intervention for Non-Verbal Learning Disability (NVLD) in the Australian education system: an educational and developmental psychologist perspective". Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties. 23 (1): 67–86. doi:10.1080/19404158.2018.1467936. ISSN 1940-4158.
  5. ^ Fine, Jodene Goldenring; Semrud-Clikeman, Margaret; Bledsoe, Jesse C.; Musielak, Kayla A. (2013-03-XX). "A critical review of the literature on NLD as a developmental disorder". Child Neuropsychology. 19 (2): 190–223. doi:10.1080/09297049.2011.648923. ISSN 0929-7049. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Doty, Nathan (2019). "Nonverbal Learning Disability". The Massachusetts General Hospital Guide to Learning Disabilities: Assessing Learning Needs of Children and Adolescents. H. Kent Wilson, Ellen Braaten. Cham, Switzerland: Humana. pp. 103–106. ISBN 978-3-319-98643-2. OCLC 1080078884.
  7. ^ Fine, Jodene Goldenring; Semrud-Clikeman, Margaret; Bledsoe, Jesse C.; Musielak, Kayla A. (March 2013). "A critical review of the literature on NLD as a developmental disorder". Child Neuropsychology. 19 (2): 190–223. doi:10.1080/09297049.2011.648923. ISSN 0929-7049. PMID 22385012.
  8. ^ a b Fine, Jodene Goldenring; Musielak, Kayla A.; Semrud-Clikeman, Margaret (2014). "Smaller splenium in children with nonverbal learning disability compared to controls, high-functioning autism and ADHD". Child Neuropsychology. 20 (6): 641–61. doi:10.1080/09297049.2013.854763. PMID 24215424.
  9. ^ Mammarella, Irene C.; Cornoldi, Cesare (4 May 2014). "An analysis of the criteria used to diagnose children with Nonverbal Learning Disability (NLD)". Child Neuropsychology. 20 (3): 255–280. doi:10.1080/09297049.2013.796920. ISSN 0929-7049.
  10. ^ a b Johnson, Doris J.; Myklebust, Helmer R. (1967). "Nonverbal Disorders of Learning". Learning disabilities: educational principles and practices. New York: Grune & Stratton. p. 272. ISBN 978-0-8089-0219-5.
  11. ^ Forrest, Bonny J. (2004). "The Utility of Math Difficulties, Internalized Psychopathology, and Visual-Spatial Deficits to Identify Children With the Nonverbal Learning Disability Syndrome: Evidence for a Visual spatial Disability". Child Neuropsychology. 10 (2): 129–46. doi:10.1080/09297040490911131. PMID 15590491.
  12. ^ Harnadek, M. C. S.; Rourke, B. P. (1994). "Principal Identifying Features of the Syndrome of Nonverbal Learning Disabilities in Children". Journal of Learning Disabilities. 27 (3): 144–54. doi:10.1177/002221949402700303. PMID 8040632.
  13. ^ Wilson, Peter H.; McKenzie, Beryl E. (1998). "Information Processing Deficits Associated with Developmental Coordination Disorder: A Meta-analysis of Research Findings". Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 39 (6): 829–40. doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00384. PMID 9758192.
  14. ^ Rourke, B. P.; Conway, J. A. (1997). "Disabilities of Arithmetic and Mathematical Reasoning: Perspectives From Neurology and Neuropsychology". Journal of Learning Disabilities. 30 (1): 34–46. doi:10.1177/002221949703000103. PMID 9009877.
  15. ^ Geary, David C. (2010). "Mathematical disabilities: Reflections on cognitive, neuropsychological, and genetic components". Learning and Individual Differences. 20 (2): 130–133. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2009.10.008. PMC 2821095. PMID 20161681.
  16. ^ Tsur, V. G.; Shalev, R. S.; Manor, O.; Amir, N. (1995). "Developmental Right-Hemisphere Syndrome: Clinical Spectrum of the Nonverbal Learning Disability". Journal of Learning Disabilities. 28 (2): 80–6. doi:10.1177/002221949502800202. PMID 7884301.
  17. ^ Rourke, Byron P. (1989). "Patterns of Reading, Spelling, and Arithmetic". Nonverbal Learning Disabilities: The Syndrome and the Model. Guilford Press. pp. 20–9. ISBN 978-0-89862-378-9.
  18. ^ Szklut, Stacey E.; Philbert, Darby Breath (2013). "Learning Disabilities and Developmental Coordination Disorder". In Umphred, Darcy A.; Lazaro, Rolando T.; Roller, Margaret L.; et al. (eds.). Neurological Rehabilitation (6th ed.). Elsevier. pp. 379–418. ISBN 978-0-323-26649-9.
  19. ^ Clayton, MC; Dodd, JL (2005). "Nonverbal neurodevelopmental dysfunctions". Pediatric Annals. 34 (4): 321–7. doi:10.3928/0090-4481-20050401-13. PMID 15871436.
  20. ^ Solodow, William; Sandy, Sandra V.; Leventhal, Fern; Beszylko, Scott; Shepherd, Margaret Jo; Cohen, Jonathan; Goldman, Shoshana; Perry, Richard; Chang, Jennifer J.; Nass, Ruth (Fall 2006). "Frequency and Diagnostic Criteria for Nonverbal Learning Disabilities in a General Learning Disability School Cohort". Thalamus. 24 (1): 17–33.
  21. ^ Horn, Nnifer L., PhD, HSPP. "An Overview of Learning Disabilities." http://beaconindiana.com/pdfs/OverviewOfLDs.pdf San Mateo, CA: Schwab Learning, 2002. N. pag. Web.
  22. ^ Tannock, Rosemary (January 2014). "DSM-5 Changes in Diagnostic Criteria for Specific Learning Disabilities (SLD): What are the Implications?". International Dyslexia Association.
  23. ^ a b c Doty, Nathan (2019). "Nonverbal Learning Disability". The Massachusetts General Hospital Guide to Learning Disabilities: Assessing Learning Needs of Children and Adolescents. H. Kent Wilson, Ellen Braaten. Cham, Switzerland: Humana. p. 110. ISBN 978-3-319-98643-2. OCLC 1080078884.
  24. ^ Wilmshurst, Linda (2014). "Sandy Smith: Marching to the Tune of a Different Drummer". Child and Adolescent Psychopathology: A Casebook. Sage. pp. 89–99. ISBN 978-1-4833-2268-1.
  25. ^ Riccio, Cynthia A. (2007). "Dyscalculia". In Reynolds, Cecil R.; Fletcher-Janzen, Elaine (eds.). Encyclopedia of Special Education. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 769–70. ISBN 978-0-471-67798-7.
  26. ^ Tsatsanis, Katherine (2013). "Right-Hemisphere Syndrome". In Volkmar, Fred R. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Autism Spectrum Disorders. Springer. pp. 2596–600. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1698-3_1587. ISBN 978-1-4419-1698-3.
  27. ^ Manoach, Dara Sue; Sandson, Thomas A.; Weintraub, Sandra (April 1995). "The Developmental Social-Emotional Processing Disorder Is Associated with Right Hemisphere Abnormalities". Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology & Behavioral Neurology. 8 (2): 99–105. INIST 3510330.
  28. ^ Semrud-Clikeman, Margaret; Hynd, George W. (1990). "Right hemisphere dysfunction in nonverbal learning disabilities: Social, academic, and adaptive functioning in adults and children". Psychological Bulletin. 107 (2): 196–209. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.107.2.196. PMID 2181523.
  29. ^ Forrest, Bonny J. (2011). "Developmental Gerstmann Syndrome". In Kreutzer, Jeffrey S.; DeLuca, John; Caplan, Bruce (eds.). Encyclopedia of Clinical Neuropsychology. Springer. pp. 826–7. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-79948-3_1540. ISBN 978-0-387-79948-3.
  30. ^ Gardner-Medwin, David (1990). "John Walton". In Ashwal, Stephen (ed.). The Founders of Child Neurology. Norman. pp. 862–70. ISBN 978-0-930405-26-7.
  31. ^ "Differentiating NLD". Current Psychiatry. 10 (7). July 2011.
  32. ^ Admin, LD I. "DSM-V to Exclude Asperger’s, PDD-NOS & NLD in 2013; Wait, What? | Life Development Institute." Life Development Institute. N.p., 2 June 2011. Web. 06 Sept. 2016.http://discoverldi.com/dsm-v-to-exclude-aspergers-pdd-nos-wait-what/
  33. ^ Myklebust, Helmer R. (1975). Myklebust, Helmer R. (ed.). "Nonverbal learning disabilities: Assessment and intervention". Progress in Learning Disabilities. 3. Grune and Stratton: 85–. ISSN 0079-6387.
  34. ^ Donders, Jacobus (2011). "Obituary for Dr. Byron Rourke". Child Neuropsychology. 17 (5): 417. doi:10.1080/09297049.2011.617105.
  35. ^ Rourke, Byron P. (1989). Nonverbal Learning Disabilities: The Syndrome and the Model. Guilford Press. ISBN 978-0-89862-378-9.[page needed]
  36. ^ Spreen, Otfried (2011). "Nonverbal learning disabilities: A critical review". Child Neuropsychology. 17 (5): 418–43. doi:10.1080/09297049.2010.546778. PMID 21462003.
  37. ^ Davis, John M.; Broitman, Jessica (2011). Nonverbal Learning Disabilities in Children: Bridging the Gap Between Science and Practice. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4419-8213-1.
  38. ^ Mammarella, Irene C.; Cornoldi, Cesare (2014). "An analysis of the criteria used to diagnose children with Nonverbal Learning Disability (NLD)". Child Neuropsycholog. 20 (3): 255–80. doi:10.1080/09297049.2013.796920. PMID 23705673.

Further reading

Books

  • Thompson, Sue (1997). The Source for Nonverbal Learning Disorders. East Moline, IL: LinguiSystems. ISBN 978-0760601631.
  • Palombo, Joseph (2006). Nonverbal Learning Disabilities: A Clinical Perspective. New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 9780393704785.
  • Broitman, Jessica; Davis, John M. (2013). Treating NVLD in Children Professional Collaborations for Positive Outcomes. New York: Springer. ISBN 978-1461461791.

By Authors with NVLD

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