Battle of Mu'tah: Difference between revisions
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100,000 is more believable than 200,000 |
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|date=[[629]] |
|date=[[629]] |
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|place=Near [[Al |
|place=Near [[Al Karak|Karak]], [[Jordan]] |
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|result= Roman withdrawal followed by Muslim withdrawal<ref name="Haykal">[[Muhammad Husayn Haykal]], ''The Life of Muhammad (Allah's peace and blessing be upon him)'', Translated by Isma'il Razi A. al-Faruqi, 1976, American Trust Publications ISBN 0-89259-002-5</ref> |
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|result= Muslims managed to retreat while inflicting heavy losses on the Romans |
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|combatant1=[[Muslim |
|combatant1=[[Muslim conquests|Muslim Arabs]] |
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|combatant2=[[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Roman Empire]] |
|combatant2=[[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Roman Empire]]<br>[[Ghassanids|Christian Arabs]] |
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|commander1=[[ |
|commander1=[[Zayd ibn Harithah]] †<br>[[Ja'far ibn Abu Talib]] †<br>[[Abdullah ibn Rawahah]] †<br>[[Khalid ibn al-Walid]] |
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|commander2=[[Heraclius]]<br>Theodoros |
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|strength1=3,000<ref name="makhtoom">Saif-ur-Rahman Mubarakpuri, ''ar-Raheeq al-Makhtoom'', "The Sealed Nectar", Islamic University of Medina, Dar-us-Salam publishers ISBN 1-59144-071-8</ref> |
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|strength2=100,000<ref name="Haykal"/> |
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|commander2=Theodoros |
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|casualties1=15<ref name="makhtoom"/> |
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|casualties2=Unknown but heavy<ref name="makhtoom"/> |
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|strength2=150,000 to 200,000 according to Muslim sources, 2000 according to modern estimates |
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|casualties1=Unknown |
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|casualties2=Unknown |
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|}} |
|}} |
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{{Campaignbox Byzantine-Arab}} |
{{Campaignbox Byzantine-Arab}} |
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{{Campaignbox Campaigns of Muhammad}} |
{{Campaignbox Campaigns of Muhammad}} |
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The '''Battle of Mu'tah''' ({{lang-ar|'''معركة مؤتة''' , '''غزوة مؤتة'''}}) was fought in [[629]] [[Common Era|CE]] (5 [[Jumada al-awwal]] [[8 AH]] in the [[Islamic calendar]]<ref |
The '''Battle of Mu'tah''' ({{lang-ar|'''معركة مؤتة''' , '''غزوة مؤتة'''}}) was fought in [[629]] [[Common Era|CE]] (5 [[Jumada al-awwal]] [[8 AH]] in the [[Islamic calendar]]<ref name="makhtoom"/>), near the village of Mu'tah, east of the [[Jordan River]] and [[Al Karak|Karak]], between a force of [[Muslim]]s dispatched by their prophet [[Muhammad]] and an army of the [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Roman Empire]]. |
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In Muslim histories, the battle is usually portrayed as a heroic feat wherein the Muslims faced off against a vastly larger Roman force.<ref name="Haykal" |
In Muslim histories, the battle is usually portrayed as a heroic feat wherein the Muslims faced off against a vastly larger Roman force.<ref name="Haykal"/> |
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Western academic scholars view the battle as an unsuccessful expedition aimed at conquering the Arabs living to the east of [[Jordan]].<ref name="Muta">{{cite encyclopedia | author = Buhl, F | editor = P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, [[Clifford Edmund Bosworth|C.E. Bosworth]], E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs | encyclopedia =[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] Online Edition | title = Mu'ta | publisher = Brill Academic Publishers | id = ISSN 1573-3912}}</ref> |
Western academic scholars view the battle as an unsuccessful expedition aimed at conquering the Arabs living to the east of [[Jordan]].<ref name="Muta">{{cite encyclopedia | author = Buhl, F | editor = P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, [[Clifford Edmund Bosworth|C.E. Bosworth]], E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs | encyclopedia =[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] Online Edition | title = Mu'ta | publisher = Brill Academic Publishers | id = ISSN 1573-3912}}</ref> |
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Muslim histories say that the immediate impetus for a military march north was the mistreatment of emissaries. Muhammad is said to have sent emissaries to the nomadic Banu Sulaym and Dhat al Talh tribes of the north (tribes under the protection of the Byzantines). The emissaries were killed. {{Fact|date=February 2007}}. The expedition sent for revenge was the largest Muslim army raised yet against a non-[[Mecca]]n confederate force and would be the first to confront the [[Byzantine]]s. {{Fact|date=February 2007}} |
Muslim histories say that the immediate impetus for a military march north was the mistreatment of emissaries. Muhammad is said to have sent emissaries to the nomadic Banu Sulaym and Dhat al Talh tribes of the north (tribes under the protection of the Byzantines). The emissaries were killed. {{Fact|date=February 2007}}. The expedition sent for revenge was the largest Muslim army raised yet against a non-[[Mecca]]n confederate force and would be the first to confront the [[Byzantine]]s. {{Fact|date=February 2007}} |
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| ⚫ | |||
==The battle according to Muslim historians== |
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| ⚫ | According to later Muslim historians, Muhammad dispatched 3,000 troops to the area in [[Jumada al-awwal]] of the year 8 A.H. (629 C.E.), for a quick expedition to surprise and punish the murderous tribes. The army was led by [[Zayd ibn Haritha]]; the second-in-command was [[Jafar ibn Abi Talib]] and the third was [[Abdullah ibn Rawahah]].<ref name="makhtoom"/> |
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| ⚫ | |||
| ⚫ | According to later Muslim historians, Muhammad dispatched 3,000 troops to the area in [[Jumada al-awwal]] of the year 8 A.H. (629 C.E.), for a quick expedition to surprise and punish the murderous tribes. The army was led by [[Zayd ibn Haritha]]; the second-in-command was [[Jafar ibn Abi Talib]] and the third was [[Abdullah ibn Rawahah]]. |
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The leader of the Arabs is said to have gained word of the expedition and prepared his forces; he also sent to the Byzantines for aid. Muslim historians report that the Byzantine emperor [[Heraclius]] himself gathered an army and hurried to the aid of his Arab allies. Other sources say that the leader was the emperor's brother, Theodorus. The combined force |
The leader of the Arabs is said to have gained word of the expedition and prepared his forces; he also sent to the Byzantines for aid. Muslim historians report that the Byzantine emperor [[Heraclius]] himself gathered an army and hurried to the aid of his Arab allies. Other sources say that the leader was the emperor's brother, Theodorus. The combined force of Roman soldiers and Arab allies is usually reported to be 100,000<ref name="Haykal"/> to 200,000<ref name="makhtoom"/> according to Muslim sources. |
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When the Muslim troops arrived at the area to the east of Jordan and learnt of the size of the Byzantine army, they wanted to wait and send for reinforcements from [[Medina]]. Abdullah ibn Rawaha scolded them for their timidity, so they continued marching towards the waiting army. |
When the Muslim troops arrived at the area to the east of Jordan and learnt of the size of the Byzantine army, they wanted to wait and send for reinforcements from [[Medina]]. Abdullah ibn Rawaha scolded them for their timidity, so they continued marching towards the waiting army. |
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==The battle== |
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The Muslims engaged the Byzantines at their camp by the village of Musharif and then withdrew towards Mu'tah. It was here that the two armies fought. |
The Muslims engaged the Byzantines at their camp by the village of Musharif and then withdrew towards Mu'tah. It was here that the two armies fought. During the battle, all three Muslim leaders fell one after the other as they took command of the force: first, Zayd ibn Haritha, then Jafar ibn Abi Talib, then Abdullah ibn Rawaha. [[Al-Bukhari]] reported that there were fifty stabs in Jafar's body, none of them in the back. After the death of the latter, the troops asked Thabit ibn Arkan to assume command; however, he declined and asked [[Khalid ibn al-Walid]] to take the lead.<ref name="makhtoom"/> |
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Al-Walid, seeing that the situation was hopeless, prepared to withdraw. He continued to engage the Byzantines in skirmishes, but avoided pitched battle. One night he completely changed his troop dispositions and brought forth a rearguard that he had equipped with new banners; all this was intended to give the impression that reinforcements had arrived from Medina. He also ordered his cavalry to retreat behind a hill, hiding their movements, and then return, raising as much dust as they could. This also was intended to create the impression that further reinforcements were arriving. |
Khalid ibn Al-Walid reported that the fighting was so intense that he used nine swords which broke in the battle. Al-Walid, seeing that the situation was hopeless, prepared to withdraw. He continued to engage the Byzantines in skirmishes, but avoided pitched battle. One night he completely changed his troop dispositions and brought forth a rearguard that he had equipped with new banners; all this was intended to give the impression that reinforcements had arrived from Medina. He also ordered his cavalry to retreat behind a hill, hiding their movements, and then return, raising as much dust as they could. This also was intended to create the impression that further reinforcements were arriving. The Byzantines believed in the fictitious reinforcements and withdrew, thus allowing the Muslim force to safely retreat to Medina. |
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| ⚫ | |||
The Byzantines believed in the fictitious reinforcements and disengaged, thus allowing the Muslim force to safely retreat to Medina. |
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==Aftermath== |
==Aftermath== |
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When the Muslims force arrived at Medina, they were berated for withdrawing and accused of fleeing. |
When the Muslims force arrived at Medina, they were berated for withdrawing and accused of fleeing. Salamah ibn Hisham is reported to have avoided even going to the mosque to avoid taunts. |
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Today, those Muslims who fell at the battle are considered heroes and [[martyr]]s ([[ |
Today, those Muslims who fell at the battle are considered heroes and [[martyr]]s ([[shahid]]). Muslims claim that this battle, far from being a defeat, was a strategic success; the Muslims had challenged the Byzantines and had made their presence felt amongst the Arab Bedouin tribes in the region. A [[mausoleum]] was later built at Mu'ta over their grave.<ref name="Muta"/> |
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==Criticism of the traditional Muslim accounts== |
==Criticism of the traditional Muslim accounts== |
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Revision as of 02:13, 23 March 2007
| Battle of Mu'tah | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of the Byzantine-Arab Wars | |||||||
| |||||||
| Belligerents | |||||||
| Muslim Arabs |
Eastern Roman Empire Christian Arabs | ||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||
|
Zayd ibn Harithah † Ja'far ibn Abu Talib † Abdullah ibn Rawahah † Khalid ibn al-Walid |
Heraclius Theodoros | ||||||
| Strength | |||||||
| 3,000[2] | 100,000[1] | ||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||
| 15[2] | Unknown but heavy[2] | ||||||
The Battle of Mu'tah (Arabic: معركة مؤتة , غزوة مؤتة) was fought in 629 CE (5 Jumada al-awwal 8 AH in the Islamic calendar[2]), near the village of Mu'tah, east of the Jordan River and Karak, between a force of Muslims dispatched by their prophet Muhammad and an army of the Eastern Roman Empire.
In Muslim histories, the battle is usually portrayed as a heroic feat wherein the Muslims faced off against a vastly larger Roman force.[1]
Western academic scholars view the battle as an unsuccessful expedition aimed at conquering the Arabs living to the east of Jordan.[3]
Background
The the treaty of Hudaybiyyah initiated a truce between the Muslim forces in Medina and the Quraishi forces in control of Mecca. Badhan, the Sassanid governor of Yemen, had converted to Islam and many of the southern Arabian tribes also joined the rising power in Medina. [citation needed] Muhammad was therefore free to focus on the Arab tribes in the Bilad al-Sham to the North.
Muslim histories say that the immediate impetus for a military march north was the mistreatment of emissaries. Muhammad is said to have sent emissaries to the nomadic Banu Sulaym and Dhat al Talh tribes of the north (tribes under the protection of the Byzantines). The emissaries were killed. [citation needed]. The expedition sent for revenge was the largest Muslim army raised yet against a non-Meccan confederate force and would be the first to confront the Byzantines. [citation needed]
Mobilization of the armies
According to later Muslim historians, Muhammad dispatched 3,000 troops to the area in Jumada al-awwal of the year 8 A.H. (629 C.E.), for a quick expedition to surprise and punish the murderous tribes. The army was led by Zayd ibn Haritha; the second-in-command was Jafar ibn Abi Talib and the third was Abdullah ibn Rawahah.[2]
The leader of the Arabs is said to have gained word of the expedition and prepared his forces; he also sent to the Byzantines for aid. Muslim historians report that the Byzantine emperor Heraclius himself gathered an army and hurried to the aid of his Arab allies. Other sources say that the leader was the emperor's brother, Theodorus. The combined force of Roman soldiers and Arab allies is usually reported to be 100,000[1] to 200,000[2] according to Muslim sources.
When the Muslim troops arrived at the area to the east of Jordan and learnt of the size of the Byzantine army, they wanted to wait and send for reinforcements from Medina. Abdullah ibn Rawaha scolded them for their timidity, so they continued marching towards the waiting army.
The battle
The Muslims engaged the Byzantines at their camp by the village of Musharif and then withdrew towards Mu'tah. It was here that the two armies fought. During the battle, all three Muslim leaders fell one after the other as they took command of the force: first, Zayd ibn Haritha, then Jafar ibn Abi Talib, then Abdullah ibn Rawaha. Al-Bukhari reported that there were fifty stabs in Jafar's body, none of them in the back. After the death of the latter, the troops asked Thabit ibn Arkan to assume command; however, he declined and asked Khalid ibn al-Walid to take the lead.[2]
Khalid ibn Al-Walid reported that the fighting was so intense that he used nine swords which broke in the battle. Al-Walid, seeing that the situation was hopeless, prepared to withdraw. He continued to engage the Byzantines in skirmishes, but avoided pitched battle. One night he completely changed his troop dispositions and brought forth a rearguard that he had equipped with new banners; all this was intended to give the impression that reinforcements had arrived from Medina. He also ordered his cavalry to retreat behind a hill, hiding their movements, and then return, raising as much dust as they could. This also was intended to create the impression that further reinforcements were arriving. The Byzantines believed in the fictitious reinforcements and withdrew, thus allowing the Muslim force to safely retreat to Medina.
Muslim commentators on the battle have often praised the skirmishing tactics of Khalid ibn al-Walid, and regard him as one of the finest military commanders in history.[1][2]
Aftermath
When the Muslims force arrived at Medina, they were berated for withdrawing and accused of fleeing. Salamah ibn Hisham is reported to have avoided even going to the mosque to avoid taunts.
Today, those Muslims who fell at the battle are considered heroes and martyrs (shahid). Muslims claim that this battle, far from being a defeat, was a strategic success; the Muslims had challenged the Byzantines and had made their presence felt amongst the Arab Bedouin tribes in the region. A mausoleum was later built at Mu'ta over their grave.[3]
Criticism of the traditional Muslim accounts
Western academics consult all accounts of the battle, not just the Muslim accounts. One important source is the Byzantine chronicle written by the historian Theophanes.
According to Theophanes, the Muslim army intended to attack the local Arabs on a feast day (the word that Theophanes used most likely indicates a pagan rather than a Christian holiday). However, the vicar Theodorus learnt about their plans and gathered a force from the garrisons of local fortresses. He fell upon the Muslims at Mu'tah and routed them; three of the Muslim leaders were killed, and only Khalid ibn al-Walid managed to escape with the rest of the army.
Fred Donner, author of The Early Islamic Conquests, argues that Muhammad sent his troops on numerous raids into Byzantine territory: Dhat al-Atla, Mut'a, Dhat al-Salasil, Tabuk, and Dumat al-Jandal. Donner writes of Muhammad's aims in these raids:
- he probably had as his immediate objective the subjugation of Arabic-speaking nomadic tribes living in the northern Hijaz and southern Syria, or at least the extension of Medina's influence sufficiently to bring these tribes into alliance with the Islamic state. (p. 102)
Donner terms the raid upon Mut'a a failure: he writes:
- Both Judham and Lakhm were among the Byzantine allies that defeated the Muslims at Mu'ta in A.H. 8/A.D. 629. (p. 105)
References
- ^ a b c d e Muhammad Husayn Haykal, The Life of Muhammad (Allah's peace and blessing be upon him), Translated by Isma'il Razi A. al-Faruqi, 1976, American Trust Publications ISBN 0-89259-002-5
- ^ a b c d e f g h Saif-ur-Rahman Mubarakpuri, ar-Raheeq al-Makhtoom, "The Sealed Nectar", Islamic University of Medina, Dar-us-Salam publishers ISBN 1-59144-071-8
- ^ a b Buhl, F. "Mu'ta". In P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs (ed.). Encyclopaedia of Islam Online Edition. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912.
{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
References
Haykal, Muhammad Husayn (1995). The Life of Muhammad. Islamic Book Service. ISBN 1-57731-195-7