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===Supporters of the therapy view===
===Supporters of the therapy view===


Reports of DID are often confirmed by objective evidence and people responsible for these acts might be prone to distort or deny their behavior.<ref name="dsm4"/> The [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders|DSM]] currently treats [[dissociative amnesia]], [[dissociative fugue]], and DID as mental disorders characterized by dissociation. Those who believe that multiple personality is a real phenomenon usually assume that it is a mental disorder, originating in children who are stressed or abused (especially [[sexual abuse|sexually abused]]). It is presumed that such children may split into several independent personalities as a [[defense mechanism]].<ref name="Watkins 1993"> Watkins Helen H. (1993). "[http://www.clinicalsocialwork.com/overview.html Ego-State Therapy: An Overview]." American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis. Volume 35, Number 4, April 1993. p. 232 - 240.</ref> DID is attributed to the interaction of overwhelming [[stress (medicine)|stress]], insufficient childhood nurturing and an innate ability to [[Dissociation (psychology)|dissociate]] memories or experiences from [[consciousness]].<ref name = merckdoc>{{cite web | url = http://www.merck.com/mmpe/sec15/ch197/ch197e.html | title = Dissociative identity disorder, doctor's reference | publisher = Merck.com | accessdate = 2008-02-03 | date = 2005-11-01 }}</ref> Prolonged [[child abuse|childhood abuse]] is believed to be a factor in DID,<ref name=merckdoc/> with a very high percentage of patients reporting documented abuse.<ref name=merckpat>{{cite web | url = http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec07/ch106/ch106d.html | title = Dissociative Identity Disorder, patient's reference | publisher = Merck.com | accessdate = 2008-02-03 | date = 2003-02-01}}</ref> DID has been described by Pearson as a severely lasting dissociative response to overwhelming and normally traumatic antecedents and results from childhood trauma.<ref name=Pearson1991>{{cite journal | author = Pearson, M.L. | year = 1997 |journal=Dissociation |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=58-62: | title =Childhood trauma, adult trauma, and dissociation | url = https://scholarsbank.uoregon.edu/dspace/bitstream/1794/1837/1/Diss_10_1_9_OCR.pdf |accessdate = 2008-06-01}}</ref> DID has also been found to have consistent diagnostic features.<ref name=Ross>{{cite journal|last=Ross|first=C. |coauthors=Norton, G.& Fraser, G. |year=1989|month=|title=Evidence against the iatrogenesis of multiple personality disorder |journal=Dissociation|volume=2|issue=2|pages=61–65|url=https://scholarsbank.uoregon.edu/dspace/bitstream/1794/1424/1/Diss_2_2_2_OCR.pdf|accessdate=2008-02-10}}</ref><ref name = Putnam/>
The [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders|DSM]] currently treats [[dissociative amnesia]], [[dissociative fugue]], and DID as mental disorders characterized by dissociation. Those who believe that multiple personality is a real phenomenon usually assume that it is a mental disorder, originating in children who are stressed or abused (especially [[sexual abuse|sexually abused]]). It is presumed that such children may split into several independent personalities as a [[defense mechanism]].<ref name="Watkins 1993"> Watkins Helen H. (1993). "[http://www.clinicalsocialwork.com/overview.html Ego-State Therapy: An Overview]." American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis. Volume 35, Number 4, April 1993. p. 232 - 240.</ref> DID is attributed to the interaction of overwhelming [[stress (medicine)|stress]], insufficient childhood nurturing and an innate ability to [[Dissociation (psychology)|dissociate]] memories or experiences from [[consciousness]].<ref name = merckdoc>{{cite web | url = http://www.merck.com/mmpe/sec15/ch197/ch197e.html | title = Dissociative identity disorder, doctor's reference | publisher = Merck.com | accessdate = 2008-02-03 | date = 2005-11-01 }}</ref> Prolonged [[child abuse|childhood abuse]] is believed to be a factor in DID,<ref name=merckdoc/> with a very high percentage of patients reporting documented abuse.<ref name=merckpat>{{cite web | url = http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec07/ch106/ch106d.html | title = Dissociative Identity Disorder, patient's reference | publisher = Merck.com | accessdate = 2008-02-03 | date = 2003-02-01}}</ref> DID has been described by one source as a severely lasting dissociative response to overwhelming and normally traumatic antecedents and results from childhood trauma.<ref name=Pearson1991>{{cite journal | author = Pearson, M.L. | year = 1997 |journal=Dissociation |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=58-62: | title =Childhood trauma, adult trauma, and dissociation | url = https://scholarsbank.uoregon.edu/dspace/bitstream/1794/1837/1/Diss_10_1_9_OCR.pdf |accessdate = 2008-06-01}}</ref>


Some researchers assert that the present scientific evidence is inadequate to support that the suggestive influences in psychotherapy can cause DID and argue that there is little scientific support for hypnosis alone creating DID.<ref name=Brown/><ref name=Ross/> One supporter of DID has argued that specialists do not influence their clients to make an increased number of personalities or to develop additional diagnostic criteria.<ref name=Ross/> D. Brown has argued that McHugh's publications questioning whether DID exists are "speculation" and claims that McHugh has insufficient clinical experience with DID patients to comment upon the diagnosis.<ref name=Brown>{{cite journal |last= Brown |first=D|coauthors=Frischholz E, Scheflin A. |year= 1999 |title= Iatrogenic dissociative identity disorder - an evaluation of the scientific evidence |journal=The Journal of Psychiatry and Law |volume= XXVII No.3-4 |issue=Fall-Winter 1999 |pages= 549–637}}</ref> Gleaves states that the research on DID does not support the ideas that DID is a construct of either psychotherapy or the media (the sociocognitive model), but that there is a connection between DID and childhood trauma and that treatment recommendations that follow from the sociocognitive model might be harmful due to the fact that they ignore the posttraumatic symptomology of people with DID.<ref name=Gleaves>{{cite journal|last=Gleaves |first=D.|year=1996 |month=July |title=The sociocognitive model of dissociative identity disorder: a reexamination of the evidence|journal=Psychological Bulletin |volume=120 |issue=1|pages=42–59|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8711016?ordinalpos=1&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus|accessdate=2008-1 -28 |doi=10.1037/0033-2909.120.1.42}}</ref>
Some researchers assert that the present scientific evidence is inadequate to support that the suggestive influences in psychotherapy can cause DID and argue that there is little scientific support for hypnosis alone creating DID.<ref name=Brown/><ref name=Ross/> One supporter of DID has argued that specialists do not influence their clients to make an increased number of personalities or to develop additional diagnostic criteria.<ref name=Ross/> D. Brown has argued that McHugh's publications questioning whether DID exists are "speculation" and claims that McHugh has insufficient clinical experience with DID patients to comment upon the diagnosis.<ref name=Brown>{{cite journal |last= Brown |first=D|coauthors=Frischholz E, Scheflin A. |year= 1999 |title= Iatrogenic dissociative identity disorder - an evaluation of the scientific evidence |journal=The Journal of Psychiatry and Law |volume= XXVII No.3-4 |issue=Fall-Winter 1999 |pages= 549–637}}</ref> Gleaves states that the research on DID does not support the ideas that DID is a construct of either psychotherapy or the media (the sociocognitive model), but that there is a connection between DID and childhood trauma and that treatment recommendations that follow from the sociocognitive model might be harmful due to the fact that they ignore the posttraumatic symptomology of people with DID.<ref name=Gleaves>{{cite journal|last=Gleaves |first=D.|year=1996 |month=July |title=The sociocognitive model of dissociative identity disorder: a reexamination of the evidence|journal=Psychological Bulletin |volume=120 |issue=1|pages=42–59|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8711016?ordinalpos=1&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus|accessdate=2008-1 -28 |doi=10.1037/0033-2909.120.1.42}}</ref>
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Some psychologists and psychiatrists regard DID as being [[iatrogenic]] or fictitious, or contend that true cases are extremely rare and that the majority of reported cases are iatrogenic.<ref name="pmid15560314">{{cite journal |author=Piper A, Merskey H |title=The persistence of folly: critical examination of dissociative identity disorder. Part II. The defence and decline of multiple personality or dissociative identity disorder |journal=Canadian journal of psychiatry. Revue canadienne de psychiatrie |volume=49 |issue=10 |pages=678–83 |year=2004 |pmid=15560314 |doi= | url = http://ww1.cpa-apc.org:8080/Publications/Archives/CJP/2004/october/piper.pdf | format = pdf}}</ref><ref name="Spanos 2001">Spanos, Nicholas P. (2001). ''Multiple Identities & False Memories: A Sociocognitive Perspective''. American Psychological Association (APA). ISBN 1-55798-893-5 </ref> Drs. Paul McHugh, Herbert Spiegel, A. Piper, H Merskey are among the leading critics of the DID paradigm and have made their views known in articles and television interviews.
Some psychologists and psychiatrists regard DID as being [[iatrogenic]] or fictitious, or contend that true cases are extremely rare and that the majority of reported cases are iatrogenic.<ref name="pmid15560314">{{cite journal |author=Piper A, Merskey H |title=The persistence of folly: critical examination of dissociative identity disorder. Part II. The defence and decline of multiple personality or dissociative identity disorder |journal=Canadian journal of psychiatry. Revue canadienne de psychiatrie |volume=49 |issue=10 |pages=678–83 |year=2004 |pmid=15560314 |doi= | url = http://ww1.cpa-apc.org:8080/Publications/Archives/CJP/2004/october/piper.pdf | format = pdf}}</ref><ref name="Spanos 2001">Spanos, Nicholas P. (2001). ''Multiple Identities & False Memories: A Sociocognitive Perspective''. American Psychological Association (APA). ISBN 1-55798-893-5 </ref> Drs. Paul McHugh, Herbert Spiegel, A. Piper, H Merskey are among the leading critics of the DID paradigm and have made their views known in articles and television interviews.


Skeptics contend that those who exhibit the symptoms of MPD/DID have learned to behave as though they had different selves in return for social reinforcement and reward, either from therapists, from other DID patients, or from society at large.<ref name="pmid15560314" /> The modern DID model relies on the premises that multiplicity is a disorder of memory and that repression of memories is a common defense against childhood sexual abuse and linked to multiplicity.{{Fact|date=August 2008}} As such, some critics have focused on studies citing the fallibility and flawed nature of human memory, the weaknesses of hypnosis as a tool for recall, and on disproving claims of the accuracy of recovered memories.<ref name="Loftus 1996">Loftus, Elizabeth & Katherine Ketcham (1996). ''The Myth of Repressed Memory: False Memories and Allegations of Sexual Abuse''. St. Martin's Griffin; 1st St. Martin's Griffin Ed edition. ISBN 0-312-14123-8</ref> The work of psychologist [[Elizabeth Loftus]], who specializes in human memory, is usually cited to support this conclusion.<ref name="Loftus 1996">Loftus, Elizabeth & Katherine Ketcham (1996). ''The Myth of Repressed Memory: False Memories and Allegations of Sexual Abuse''. St. Martin's Griffin; 1st St. Martin's Griffin Ed edition. ISBN 0-312-14123-8 </ref> Some of Loftus' work, however, has been critiqued in terms of the applicability of its conclusions<ref>{{cite journal |last=Crook|first=L. |year=1999 |title=Lost in a Shopping Mall--A Breach of Professional Ethics. |journal=Ethics & Behavior. |volume=9 |issue=1|pages=39–50 |url=http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=95748793|accessdate= 2008-01-18 |doi=10.1207/s15327019eb0901_3 }}</ref> A more lengthy review of the normal fallacies of memory is given by Nicholas Spanos in his sociocognitive model.<ref name="Spanos 2001"/>
Skeptics contend that those who exhibit the symptoms of MPD/DID have learned to behave as though they had different selves in return for social reinforcement and reward, either from therapists, from other DID patients, or from society at large.<ref name="pmid15560314" /> The modern DID model relies on the premises that multiplicity is a disorder of memory and that repression of memories is a common defense against childhood sexual abuse and linked to multiplicity.{{Fact|date=August 2008}} As such, some critics have focused on studies citing the fallibility and flawed nature of human memory, the weaknesses of hypnosis as a tool for recall, and on disproving claims of the accuracy of recovered memories.<ref name="Loftus 1996">Loftus, Elizabeth & Katherine Ketcham (1996). ''The Myth of Repressed Memory: False Memories and Allegations of Sexual Abuse''. St. Martin's Griffin; 1st St. Martin's Griffin Ed edition. ISBN 0-312-14123-8</ref> The work of psychologist [[Elizabeth Loftus]], who specializes in human memory, is usually cited to support this conclusion.<ref name="Loftus 1996">Loftus, Elizabeth & Katherine Ketcham (1996). ''The Myth of Repressed Memory: False Memories and Allegations of Sexual Abuse''. St. Martin's Griffin; 1st St. Martin's Griffin Ed edition. ISBN 0-312-14123-8 </ref> A more lengthy review of the normal fallacies of memory is given by Nicholas Spanos in his sociocognitive model.<ref name="Spanos 2001" />


Critics of the DID model point to the fact that the diagnosis of MPD and DID is a phenomenon largely unique to English-speaking countries.<ref name="Spanos 2001" /> Prior to the 1950s, cases of dual personality and multiple personality were occasionally reported and treated as curiosities in the Western world.<ref name="A History">"[http://web.archive.org/web/20040216051717/http://www.fortea.us/english/psiquiatria/history.htm A History of Dissociative Identity Disorder]." ''[http://web.archive.org/web/20040215143349/www.fortea.us/english/psiquiatria/psiquiatria.htm Demonic Possession and Psychiatry]''.</ref> The 1957 publication of the book ''[[The Three Faces of Eve]]'', and the popular movie which followed it, revived the American public's interest in multiple personality. The diagnosis of Multiple Personality Disorder, however, was not included in the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders|DSM]] until 1980, following the publication in 1974 of the highly influential book [[Sybil (book)|Sybil]]. As media coverage spiked, diagnoses climbed. There were 200 reported cases of MPD from 1880 to [[1979]], and 20,000 from 1980 to [[1990]].<ref name="Adams 2003">Adams, Cecil (2003). "[http://www.straightdope.com/columns/031003.html Does multiple personality disorder really exist?]." ''[http://www.straightdope.com The Straight Dope]''.</ref> According to [[Joan Acocella]], 40,000 cases were diagnosed from 1985 to [[1995]].<ref name="Acocella"/> The DID diagnosis is most common in [[North America]], particularly the [[United States]], and in English-speaking countries more generally.<ref name="Spanos 2001" /> The majority of diagnoses are made by only a few practitioners.<ref name="Modestin J 1992">Modestin, J. (1992). Multiple personality disorder in Switzerland. ''Am J Psychiatry''. 1992 Jan;149(1):88-92. PMID 1728191</ref> There is a controversy around the accuracy of DID reports, as memories of childhood might be able to be distorted and DID patients are easy to hypnotize and are very vulnerable to suggestion in certain situations.<ref name="dsm4"/>
Critics of the DID model point to the fact that the diagnosis of MPD and DID is a phenomenon largely unique to English-speaking countries.<ref name="Spanos 2001" /> Prior to the 1950s, cases of dual personality and multiple personality were occasionally reported and treated as curiosities in the Western world.<ref name="A History">"[http://web.archive.org/web/20040216051717/http://www.fortea.us/english/psiquiatria/history.htm A History of Dissociative Identity Disorder]." ''[http://web.archive.org/web/20040215143349/www.fortea.us/english/psiquiatria/psiquiatria.htm Demonic Possession and Psychiatry]''.</ref> The 1957 publication of the book ''[[The Three Faces of Eve]]'', and the popular movie which followed it, revived the American public's interest in multiple personality. The diagnosis of Multiple Personality Disorder, however, was not included in the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders|DSM]] until 1980, following the publication in 1974 of the highly influential book [[Sybil (book)|Sybil]]. As media coverage spiked, diagnoses climbed. There were 200 reported cases of MPD from 1880 to [[1979]], and 20,000 from 1980 to [[1990]].<ref name="Adams 2003">Adams, Cecil (2003). "[http://www.straightdope.com/columns/031003.html Does multiple personality disorder really exist?]." ''[http://www.straightdope.com The Straight Dope]''.</ref> According to [[Joan Acocella]], 40,000 cases were diagnosed from 1985 to [[1995]].<ref name="Acocella"/> The DID diagnosis is most common in [[North America]], particularly the [[United States]], and in English-speaking countries more generally.<ref name="Spanos 2001" /> The majority of diagnoses are made by only a few practitioners.<ref name="Modestin J 1992">Modestin, J. (1992). Multiple personality disorder in Switzerland. ''Am J Psychiatry''. 1992 Jan;149(1):88-92. PMID 1728191</ref>


=== Healthy multiplicity ===
=== Healthy multiplicity ===

Revision as of 12:26, 8 August 2008

The existence of multiple personalities within an individual personality is diagnosed as dissociative identity disorder (DID) in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). Prior to the publication of the DSM-IV, it was termed multiple personality disorder (MPD). Both the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD) and Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders list the condition in their taxonomies of mental disorders, as MPD and DID respectively.

The diagnosis of DID has been heavily debated in the last hundred years. Opinions vary greatly on the topic of DID. In recent years it has become discussed as to whether DID exists and is caused by repeated and severe abuse or whether patients have been simply copying symptoms either they've read about in fictional accounts or that a therapist asked them about while attempting to diagnose them for this condition. Among those who believe such a condition exists there is the additional controversy of whether it should be considered a mental illness or not.

Contemporary views

DID is a controversial diagnosis[1][2][3][4][5] with some researchers considering it a culture bound, iatrogenic condition[3][6] though this idea is not universally accepted.[7][8][9][10][11] The DSM is explicit about the controversy over the condition.

Diagnoses of DID peaked in the mid 1990s and have since declined sharply, a pattern described by Pope et al. as "a brief period of fashion".[12]

Supporters of the therapy view

The DSM currently treats dissociative amnesia, dissociative fugue, and DID as mental disorders characterized by dissociation. Those who believe that multiple personality is a real phenomenon usually assume that it is a mental disorder, originating in children who are stressed or abused (especially sexually abused). It is presumed that such children may split into several independent personalities as a defense mechanism.[13] DID is attributed to the interaction of overwhelming stress, insufficient childhood nurturing and an innate ability to dissociate memories or experiences from consciousness.[14] Prolonged childhood abuse is believed to be a factor in DID,[14] with a very high percentage of patients reporting documented abuse.[15] DID has been described by one source as a severely lasting dissociative response to overwhelming and normally traumatic antecedents and results from childhood trauma.[16]

Some researchers assert that the present scientific evidence is inadequate to support that the suggestive influences in psychotherapy can cause DID and argue that there is little scientific support for hypnosis alone creating DID.[7][9] One supporter of DID has argued that specialists do not influence their clients to make an increased number of personalities or to develop additional diagnostic criteria.[9] D. Brown has argued that McHugh's publications questioning whether DID exists are "speculation" and claims that McHugh has insufficient clinical experience with DID patients to comment upon the diagnosis.[7] Gleaves states that the research on DID does not support the ideas that DID is a construct of either psychotherapy or the media (the sociocognitive model), but that there is a connection between DID and childhood trauma and that treatment recommendations that follow from the sociocognitive model might be harmful due to the fact that they ignore the posttraumatic symptomology of people with DID.[8]

There is insufficient understanding of consciousness to be able to explain how a novel split would occur in a previously undivided mind and how it would be maintained in the mind.[citation needed] Psychoanalytic theorists believe a schizoid phase of development occurs in childhood, which may have encouraged this view of traumatic splitting. There has been nothing found to explain why children who are later diagnosed with multiple personalities would split from those who do not under comparable types of stress.[citation needed]

Dissociative identity disorder is diagnosed in 3 to 4% of people in hospitals for other mental health disorders and a large number of patients in treatment facilities for substance abuse.[15]

Critics

Some psychologists and psychiatrists regard DID as being iatrogenic or fictitious, or contend that true cases are extremely rare and that the majority of reported cases are iatrogenic.[6][17] Drs. Paul McHugh, Herbert Spiegel, A. Piper, H Merskey are among the leading critics of the DID paradigm and have made their views known in articles and television interviews.

Skeptics contend that those who exhibit the symptoms of MPD/DID have learned to behave as though they had different selves in return for social reinforcement and reward, either from therapists, from other DID patients, or from society at large.[6] The modern DID model relies on the premises that multiplicity is a disorder of memory and that repression of memories is a common defense against childhood sexual abuse and linked to multiplicity.[citation needed] As such, some critics have focused on studies citing the fallibility and flawed nature of human memory, the weaknesses of hypnosis as a tool for recall, and on disproving claims of the accuracy of recovered memories.[18] The work of psychologist Elizabeth Loftus, who specializes in human memory, is usually cited to support this conclusion.[18] A more lengthy review of the normal fallacies of memory is given by Nicholas Spanos in his sociocognitive model.[17]

Critics of the DID model point to the fact that the diagnosis of MPD and DID is a phenomenon largely unique to English-speaking countries.[17] Prior to the 1950s, cases of dual personality and multiple personality were occasionally reported and treated as curiosities in the Western world.[19] The 1957 publication of the book The Three Faces of Eve, and the popular movie which followed it, revived the American public's interest in multiple personality. The diagnosis of Multiple Personality Disorder, however, was not included in the DSM until 1980, following the publication in 1974 of the highly influential book Sybil. As media coverage spiked, diagnoses climbed. There were 200 reported cases of MPD from 1880 to 1979, and 20,000 from 1980 to 1990.[20] According to Joan Acocella, 40,000 cases were diagnosed from 1985 to 1995.[21] The DID diagnosis is most common in North America, particularly the United States, and in English-speaking countries more generally.[17] The majority of diagnoses are made by only a few practitioners.[22]

Healthy multiplicity

Truddi Chase, author of the best-selling book When Rabbit Howls, is one believer in healthy multiplicity. Although she described the multiplicity as originating from abuse, she claims to live as a group of selves who rejected integration and function in mutual cooperation.[23] Groups which experience blackouts between personality switches can function by referring to jointly owned calendars, datebooks and lists.[23]

Some take the position that multiplicity can arise in a variety of ways, from being born naturally multiple to dissociating due to trauma; but that regardless of origins, a group of selves can cooperate and function well in tasks of daily living.[24]

Recent history

Some of the criticisms of the diagnosis arose in the wake of the controversy over Satanic ritual abuse (SRA). Allegations of Satanic cults operating secretly kidnapping children and using them in human sacrifices, was advanced in the early 1980s by evangelical Christian writers, among them Hal Lindsey and Johanna Michaelsen.[21] Bennett Braun and others believed that abuse by such cults was widespread, and that some deliberately used mind control to induce multiple personalities in victims.[25]

Some therapists have found that these allegations derive from a moral panic. [26] As the memories described by some patients identifying with MPD/DID in recovered memory therapy were bizarre, and seemed to strain credibility, or described incidents that could not have happened, the debate over MPD and DID became indelibly linked to the debate over repression for skeptics and critics.[21][27]

People diagnosed with DID often report that they have experienced severe physical and sexual abuse, especially during their childhood.[28]

A few accused criminals, especially murderers, have claimed one of their "alters" committed a crime and used the diagnosis as a defense. Jeffrey MacDonald, who was convicted of killing his wife and children, and Hillside Strangler Kenneth Bianchi were among the most notable. Dr. Colin Ross was convinced Bianchi was a multiple: however, Chris Costner-Sizemore, brought in to observe Bianchi, stated that in her opinion he was not. [29]

The most recent case on record of an MPD criminal defense was the 1994 trial of Lori Scheirer, a Pennsylvania woman who confessed to a murder because one of her "alters" advised her to do so. She did not say that an "alter" had committed the murder. Scheirer had given enough details to police that she could reasonably be a suspect; but subsequently, she announced that she had made up the entire confession in order to gain attention. Scheirer and other family members related bizarre episodes of memory loss, stating that she looked and acted like totally different people at different times. Her disorder was speculated to have been caused by years of sexual, emotional, and physical abuse, as is usual with MPD claims. Two psychiatrists testified for her defense, one arguing that she had MPD, the other stating that she did not. The defense appeared to work to some extent; she was acquitted. [30]

Chronology

  • (1546) Paracelsus reportedly wrote an account of a woman who had amnesia about an alter personality who stole her money[31]
  • (1791) Eberhard Gmelin describes a case of "exchanged personality" in a 21-year-old German woman who manifested a second self, speaking French and claiming to be a French aristocrat. Gmelin believed that cases such as hers could aid in understanding the formation of personality.[32]
  • (1838) Antoine Despine describes a case of dual personality in "Estelle," an 11-year-old girl.[33]
  • (1887) to (1896) Eugene Azam, a professor of surgery interested in hypnotism, described the case of Felida X who exhibited three different personalities.[34][31]
  • (1906) Morton Prince's book The Dissociation of a Personality describes his work with multiple personality patient Clara Norton Fowler, alias Christine Beauchamp.
  • (1954) Shirley Jackson's book The Bird's Nest, a fictional story of multiple personality, is published.
  • (1954) Thigpen & Cleckley's book The Three Faces of Eve, loosely based on the therapy of Chris Costner-Sizemore, is published, reviving the American public's interest in the subject of multiple personality.
  • (1957) A movie version of The Three Faces of Eve, starring Joanne Woodward, is released.
  • (1973) Flora R. Schreiber's bestselling book Sybil, a novelized treatment of the life and therapy of Shirley Ardell Mason, alias 'Sybil Dorsett' in the book.
  • (1976) A made-for-TV film version of Sybil is produced, starring Sally Field in the title role.
  • (1977) Chris Costner-Sizemore publishes an autobiography, I'm Eve, alleging that Thigpen and Cleckley's book was a misrepresentation of her life.
  • (1980) Publication of Michelle Remembers.
  • (1981) Daniel Keyes' book The Minds of Billy Milligan is published, based on interviews with Billy Milligan, some of his therapists, lawyers and family members.
  • (1986) Publication of When Rabbit Howls by autobiographical author Truddi Chase.
  • (1989) Frank Putnam's Diagnosis and Treatment of Multiple Personality Disorder, is published.[31]
  • (1996) Publication of Rewriting the Soul by Ian Hacking.
  • (1998) Joan Acocella's New Yorker article detailing the excesses of MPD therapy, Creating Hysteria, is published.
  • (1999) Cameron West's book, First Person Plural: My Life as a Multiple is published.
  • (2005) Robert Oxnam's autobiography, A Fractured Mind, is published.
  • (2007) Richard Baer's Switching Time: A Doctor's Harrowing Story of Treating a Woman with 17 Personalities, is published.[35][36]

See also

References

  1. ^ Boon S, Draijer N (1991). "Diagnosing dissociative disorders in The Netherlands: a pilot study with the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-III-R Dissociative Disorders". The American journal of psychiatry. 148 (4): 458–62. PMID 2006691.
  2. ^ Atchison M, McFarlane AC (1994). "A review of dissociation and dissociative disorders". The Australian and New Zealand journal of psychiatry. 28 (4): 591–9. PMID 7794202.
  3. ^ a b Piper A, Merskey H (2004). "The persistence of folly: a critical examination of dissociative identity disorder. Part I. The excesses of an improbable concept" (pdf). Canadian journal of psychiatry. Revue canadienne de psychiatrie. 49 (9): 592–600. PMID 15503730.
  4. ^ Pope HG, Oliva PS, Hudson JI, Bodkin JA, Gruber AJ (1999). "Attitudes toward DSM-IV dissociative disorders diagnoses among board-certified American psychiatrists". The American journal of psychiatry. 156 (2): 321–3. PMID 9989574.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. ^ Lalonde JK, Hudson JI, Gigante RA, Pope HG (2001). "Canadian and American psychiatrists' attitudes toward dissociative disorders diagnoses". Canadian journal of psychiatry. Revue canadienne de psychiatrie. 46 (5): 407–12. PMID 11441778.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ^ a b c Piper A, Merskey H (2004). "The persistence of folly: critical examination of dissociative identity disorder. Part II. The defence and decline of multiple personality or dissociative identity disorder" (pdf). Canadian journal of psychiatry. Revue canadienne de psychiatrie. 49 (10): 678–83. PMID 15560314.
  7. ^ a b c Brown, D (1999). "Iatrogenic dissociative identity disorder - an evaluation of the scientific evidence". The Journal of Psychiatry and Law. XXVII No. 3-4 (Fall-Winter 1999): 549–637. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help) Cite error: The named reference "Brown" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  8. ^ a b Gleaves, D. (1996). "The sociocognitive model of dissociative identity disorder: a reexamination of the evidence". Psychological Bulletin. 120 (1): 42–59. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.120.1.42. PMID 8711016. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help) Cite error: The named reference "Gleaves" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  9. ^ a b c Ross, C. (1989). "Evidence against the iatrogenesis of multiple personality disorder" (PDF). Dissociation. 2 (2): 61–65. Retrieved 2008-02-10. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  10. ^ Kluft, R.P. (1989). "Iatrongenic creation of new alter personalities" (PDF). Dissociation. 2 (2): 83–91. Retrieved 2008-04-21.
  11. ^ Braun, B.G. (1989). "Dissociation: Vol. 2, No. 2, p. 066-069: Iatrophilia and Iatrophobia in the diagnosis and treatment of MPD" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-05-04. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  12. ^ Pope HG, Barry S, Bodkin A, Hudson JI (2006). "Tracking scientific interest in the dissociative disorders: a study of scientific publication output 1984-2003". Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics. 75 (1): 19–24. doi:10.1159/000089223. PMID 16361871.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. ^ Watkins Helen H. (1993). "Ego-State Therapy: An Overview." American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis. Volume 35, Number 4, April 1993. p. 232 - 240.
  14. ^ a b "Dissociative identity disorder, doctor's reference". Merck.com. 2005-11-01. Retrieved 2008-02-03.
  15. ^ a b "Dissociative Identity Disorder, patient's reference". Merck.com. 2003-02-01. Retrieved 2008-02-03.
  16. ^ Pearson, M.L. (1997). "Childhood trauma, adult trauma, and dissociation" (PDF). Dissociation. 10 (1): 58-62:. Retrieved 2008-06-01.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  17. ^ a b c d Spanos, Nicholas P. (2001). Multiple Identities & False Memories: A Sociocognitive Perspective. American Psychological Association (APA). ISBN 1-55798-893-5
  18. ^ a b Loftus, Elizabeth & Katherine Ketcham (1996). The Myth of Repressed Memory: False Memories and Allegations of Sexual Abuse. St. Martin's Griffin; 1st St. Martin's Griffin Ed edition. ISBN 0-312-14123-8 Cite error: The named reference "Loftus 1996" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  19. ^ "A History of Dissociative Identity Disorder." Demonic Possession and Psychiatry.
  20. ^ Adams, Cecil (2003). "Does multiple personality disorder really exist?." The Straight Dope.
  21. ^ a b c Acocella, Joan (1999). Creating Hysteria: Women and Multiple Personality Disorder. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1999. ISBN 0-7879-4794-6
  22. ^ Modestin, J. (1992). Multiple personality disorder in Switzerland. Am J Psychiatry. 1992 Jan;149(1):88-92. PMID 1728191
  23. ^ a b Phillips, Robert K.; Chase, Truddi (1990). When Rabbit Howls. New York: Berkley Pub. Co. ISBN 0-515-10329-2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  24. ^ Carter, Rita, "Fractured Minds". New Scientist, 13 September 2003, web page found on 10 April 2007.
  25. ^ Ofshe, Richard. Making Monsters: False Memories, Psychotherapy, And Sexual Hysteria. San Francisco: University of California, 1996. ISBN 0520205839.
  26. ^ Jenkins, Philip, Moral Panic, Changing Concepts of the Child Molester in Modern America. Yale, 1998.
  27. ^ Pendergrast, Mark (1996). Victims of Memory: Sex Abuse Accusations and Shattered Lives New York: Upper Access Books, 1996. ISBN 0942679180.
  28. ^ American Psychiatric Association (2000-06). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders DSM-IV TR (Text Revision). Arlington, VA, USA: American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc. p. 943. doi:10.1176/appi.books.9780890423349. ISBN 978-0890420249. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  29. ^ Chris Costner-Sizemore in a 1987 interview with Geraldo Rivera (when? what program?)
  30. ^ Katherine Ramsland and Rachel Kuter, Multiple Personality Disorder, Crime and Defense, chapter 10. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
  31. ^ a b c Putnam, Frank W. (1989). Diagnosis and Treatment of Multiple Personality Disorder. New York: The Guilford Press. p. 351. ISBN 0-89862-177-1.
  32. ^ Carlson ET, (1989) Multiple personality and hypnosis: the first one hundred years. J Hist Behav Sci, 25(4):315-22. PMID 2677129
  33. ^ Fine CG, (1988) The work of Antoine Despine: the first scientific report on the diagnosis and treatment of a child with multiple personality disorder. American Journal of Clinical Hypnotherapy, 31(1):33-9. PMID 3064579
  34. ^ W. R. Gowers Mind, Vol. 1, No. 4 (Oct., 1876), pp. 552-554
  35. ^ Baer, Richard A. (2007). Switching Time: A Doctor's Harrowing Story of Treating a Woman with 17 Personalities. [New York]: Crown. ISBN 0307382664.
  36. ^ Underwood, Anne (October 22, 2007). "Identity Crisis What is it like to live with 17 alternate selves? A survivor of multiple personality disorder discusses the disease and the painful integration process that made her whole". Newsweek.

Further reading

External links

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