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[[Image:Kaunas Fortress IX fort 2006.jpg|thumb|left| A 32-metre tall memorial to the victims]]
[[Image:Kaunas Fortress IX fort 2006.jpg|thumb|left| A 32-metre tall memorial to the victims]]


Adjustments of the secret protocols of the 1939 [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]] assigned Lithuania to the [[Soviet]] sphere of influence, and [[Occupation of the Baltic states|it was occupied]] by the [[USSR]] in June 1940.<ref>Anušauskas, Arvydas (2007). p.61</ref> The fortress was then used to conduct interrogations and house political prisoners. The pact was broken when [[Operation Barbarossa|Germany invaded Russia]] on June 22, 1941. Nazi forces entered Kaunas on June 24th.<ref name=ushm/> The Sixth Fort became a [[POW]] camp for [[Red Army]] soldiers.<ref name=TIC>{{lt icon}} Tvirtovių istorijos centras. [http://www.fortresses.eu/lt/f_kaunas_i.html Kauno tvirtovė] Retrieved on 2008-05-20</ref> The Nazis, aided by Lithuanian auxiliaries, began massacring the Jewish population. On July 6th, acting under orders of the [[SS]], Lithuanian auxiliary police units shot nearly 3,000 Jews at the Seventh Fort.<ref>Gitelman, Zvi (1997). p.208</ref> On August 18th, in what came to be known as the "intellectuals action," over 1,800 Jews were shot at the Fourth Fort. On October 28th the "Great Action" took place - the residents of the [[Kaunas Ghetto]] were summoned, and over 9,000 men, women and children were taken to the Ninth Fort and executed. During the later course of the occupation, over 5,000 Jewish deportees from Central Europe would be executed at this fort. About 60 escaped in December 1943; they had been assigned to excavate and burn the bodies of earlier victims, as part of [[Aktion 1005]]. Thirteen of these escapees were able to document the Aktion's attempt to hide the evidence of the mass murders.<ref name=ushm/>
Adjustments of the secret protocols of the 1939 [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]] assigned Lithuania to the [[Soviet]] sphere of influence, and [[Occupation of the Baltic states|it was occupied]] by the [[USSR]] in June 1940.<ref>Anušauskas, Arvydas (2007). p.61</ref> The fortress was then used to conduct interrogations and house political prisoners. The pact was broken when [[Operation Barbarossa|Germany invaded Russia]] on June 22, 1941. Nazi forces entered Kaunas on June 24th.<ref name=ushm/> The Sixth Fort became a [[POW]] camp for [[Red Army]] soldiers.<ref name=TIC>{{lt icon}} Tvirtovių istorijos centras. [http://www.fortresses.eu/lt/f_kaunas_i.html Kauno tvirtovė] Retrieved on 2008-05-20</ref> The Nazis, aided by [[Collaboration_during_World_War_II#Lithuania|Lithuanian auxiliaries]] (most infamously, the [[Ypatingasis būrys]]), [[Holocaust in Lithuania|began massacring the Jewish population]]. On July 6th, acting under orders of the [[SS]], Lithuanian auxiliary police units shot nearly 3,000 Jews at the Seventh Fort.<ref>Gitelman, Zvi (1997). p.208</ref> On August 18th, in what came to be known as the "intellectuals action," over 1,800 Jews were shot at the Fourth Fort. On October 28th the "Great Action" took place - the residents of the [[Kaunas Ghetto]] were summoned, and over 9,000 men, women and children were taken to the Ninth Fort and executed. During the later course of the occupation, over 5,000 Jewish deportees from Central Europe would be executed at this fort. About 60 escaped in December 1943; they had been assigned to excavate and burn the bodies of earlier victims, as part of [[Aktion 1005]]. Thirteen of these escapees were able to document the Aktion's attempt to hide the evidence of the mass murders.<ref name=ushm/>


When Germany began losing the war, and the battlefront approached Lithuania, the German defense began attempts to prepare a defensive in Kaunas, including the use of the fortress. The [[Nemunas|Nemunas River]] was labelled "the line of catastrophe", and [[Adolf Hitler]] called for its defense at any price.<ref name=TIC/> On [[August 1]], [[1944]] Kaunas was captured by the Red Army. The remaining fortress structures were used for military needs and several of the original structures were demolished or redeveloped.<ref name=TIC/>
When Germany began losing the war, and the battlefront approached Lithuania, the German defense began attempts to prepare a defensive in Kaunas, including the use of the fortress. The [[Nemunas|Nemunas River]] was labelled "the line of catastrophe", and [[Adolf Hitler]] called for its defense at any price.<ref name=TIC/> On [[August 1]], [[1944]] Kaunas was captured by the Red Army. The remaining fortress structures were used for military needs and several of the original structures were demolished or redeveloped.<ref name=TIC/>

Revision as of 21:05, 22 August 2008

Kaunas Fortress
Lithuania
Fortress plan from the 19th century
Site information
Controlled byImperial Russia, German Empire, Lithuania
Site history
Built19th-20th centuries
In usefrom 19th century end
MaterialsBricks, reinforced concrete
Battles/wars1915

Kaunas Fortress (Lithuanian: Kauno tvirtovė, Russian: Кοвенская крепость) is the remains of a fortress complex in Kaunas, Lithuania. The fortress was originally constructed as an imperial Russian redoubt of the "first-class" grade. Its gradual construction and renovation lasted from 1882 to 1915. During World War I, the fortress was the largest defensive structure in the entire state, occupying 65 km2 (25.1 mi2).[1]

The fortress was battle-tested in 1915, when Germany attacked the Russian Empire, and withstood eleven days of assault before capture. After the World War I, the fortress' military importance declined as advances in weaponry rendered it increasingly obsolete and it was used for civilian enterprises and as a garrison.[2]

When Lithuania was occupied during the Second World War, parts of the fortress complex were used for detention, interrogation, and execution. About 15,800 victims of the Holocaust were murdered at the fortress.[3] Some sections of the complex have since been restored to their original form and the Ninth Fort houses a museum and memorial devoted to the victims of wartime mass executions. Complex of the constructions of Kaunas Fortress is the only remaining fortress of the Russian Empire in its entirety.[4]

Background

Due to its strategic location near the confluence of two rivers, Nemunas and Neris the city of Kaunas has long been a key geopolitical feature of the region. During the course of the city's history and the many wars that took place in Lithuania, defensive structures were built in the surrounding area by Lithuanians, Germans, Swedes, and Russians.[1] The city experienced considerable growth from the 15th century onward.[5]

Following the partitions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth at the end of the 18th century, Lithuania was incorporated into the Russian Empire. Fortresses supporting Russia's western border existed or were being built in Latvia, Ukraine, and Belarus. The concept of building a fortress in Lithuania was discussed without result in 1796,[5] but became a critical concern after the the French invasion of Russia in 1812 led by Napoleon. The Grande Armée, without major difficulties, managed to cross the Nemunas river near Kaunas on its drive towards Moscow.[6]

In 1861 a branch of the railroad from Saint Petersburg to Warsaw opened in Kaunas, increasing the importance of the city.[7] Railroads played a key role in the region during military campaigns of the period, since they were the primary means of transporting military equipment and supplies. Moreover, a fortress at Kaunas would present an obstacle to attacks from the west, preventing further incursions towards Riga and Vilnius. In order to control the region, its attackers would need to first neutralize Kaunas. Facing this possibility and evaluating the natural advantages of the city, Russian officials decided to strengthen the empire's western border by building a fortress in the city. After several delays, on 7 July 1879 an edict was issued by Tsar Alexander II, ordering the construction of a fortress in the city.[1]

Construction

The Garrison Church was constructed for the fortress garrison

The first general plan of the fortress was mapped out by Generals Nikolay Obruchev, Konstantin Zverev, and Ivan Volberg.[5][8] As originally planned, the fortress was intended to encompass a huge site including seven forts and nine defensive batteries, arranged in concentric loops. Supporting buildings, such as barracks, new roads, and an ammunition depot, were also planned. Construction began in 1882.[9] About 4,000 workers were mustered for the construction project.[10]The main structures of the fortress were concentrated in Freda, Panemunė, Aleksotas, and the new section of the city. The project significantly affected the daily life of Kaunas residents, and there were plans to detach the fortress into an independent administrative unit governed by a military board.[11]

The first forts were built using bricks reinforced with thick ramparts of earth, which were incorporated into the surrounding relief, making them harder to breach.[6] The forts were symmetrical, usually having five faces, with positions for infantry and artillery. The forts of the first construction stage were built according to the typical design of Russian brick forts of 1879. Therefore, the first seven forts had similar designs with the only difference being the inned planing, integration into surrounding relief, later renovations and some constructional elements.[8] Batteries were built in-between adjacent forts; these were fortified positions of various artillery types and were located on the line of the fort cycle and as a rule erected on the hills.[12] The first construction phase was completed in 1887.[9][13] At the same time, administrative rules were established which placed restrictions on the height of the fortress' civil buildings and to manage the fortress' impact on the city and its surrounding areas.[14] The fortress was designated first-class, marking its importance and defensive capabilities, in that year, and Otto Klem was named its first commandant.[13]

Fortress construction [10]
Structure Start of construction Completion
I battery 1882 1889
I fort 1883 1889
II battery 1883 1888
II fort 1883 1888
III battery 1883 1888
III fort 1883 1889
IV battery 1884 1888
IV fort 1883 1889
V battery 1884 1888
V fort 1883 1889
VI battery 1883 1888
VI fort 1883 1889
VII battery 1884 1888
VII fort 1884 1889
VIII battery 1883 1888
VIII fort 1890 ~1907
IX battery 1883 1888
IX fort 1903 1911[15]

In 1890-1891 work began on an eighth fort, known as Linkuva, constructed using new techniques, particularly reinforced concrete.[6] The Linkuva fort became the most modern entrenchment in Kaunas, equipped with electricity, sewerage, and casemates for a garrison of 1,000 personnel.[12] During the same year, massive groundworks were laid along with additional defensive structures, effecting the complete enclosure of the city center between the Rivers Nemunas and Neris. By 1890 seven forts had been completed, supporting roads had been constructed, and a railroad bridge over the Nemunas had been adapted for military transport. By now, expenditures on the fortress had amounted to over nine million rubles.[9] That same year, plans were made to add a church to serve the fortress garrison. The first bricks were laid in 1891, and it was completed in 1893. The following year construction began on a narrow gauge railway.[16]

The complex of forts and defensive structures was divided into four sectors. The first followed the left bank of the Nemunas to its confluence with the Jiesia River and included the three earliest forts. The second sector extended from the Jiesia to Pažaislis monastery and included two forts. The third extended from the right to the left bank of the Nemunas; this sector also contained two forts. The fourth and last sector stretched from the right bank of the Neris to the left bank of the Nemunas, comprising two forts, including the newest — the Ninth Fort.[9]

The Ninth Fort became the first fort of such design in the Empire - with a trapezium form, encompassing one infantry rampart, and was equipped with two armored watchtowers, electricity, and ventilation. The walls of cannon casemates were covered with cork in attempt to minimize firing noise.[12] Total cost of single fort reached 850 thousand rubles.[15]

As new building and weapons technologies developed, the fortress was renovated again and again in order to maintain its effectiveness as a military redoubt. In 1912 an initiative was launched to expand and reconstruct the fortress.[13] The project called for twelve new forts and batteries with supporting buildings and defensive structures. Its completion was scheduled for 1917.[17] The older forts were to be completely encircled by the new construction. The construction was meant to employ the newest military technologies.[1] During the early realization of the plan, new defensive entrenchments were built, and the old forts were strengthened with concrete. However, when action began on the Eastern Front during World War I, work on the fortress was halted.[6] In 1915 only one fort, the Ninth, was in conformance with the new technological criteria, while the Tenth Fort was partially complete. Despite the fact that the fortress's new construction was not fully accomplished, its internal railroad, supporting buildings, and military structures still covered about 65 square kilometres and posed tremendous challenges for attackers.[1]

World War I

The Second Fort after German bombardment
The German Gamma-Gerät gun. German artillery played the key role in the offensive.
Firing batteries in the Ninth Fort

In 1915, Germany and the Central Powers began an offensive against Russia and advanced towards Lithuania and Kaunas. The German army reached the Kaunas Fortress in July 1915. At that time, about 90,000 soldiers, commanded by Vladimir Grigoriev, manned the fortress (Russian: Владимир Григорьев).[18] To attack the fortress, the Germans brought four divisions to the operation, which were placed under the command of Karl Litzmann.[14]

To support the attack on the fortress, the Germans constructed a railroad to transport their 42-centimetre Gamma-Gerät howitzer (Big Bertha). The howitzer's shell weighed about 1,000 kilograms (1.1 S/T) with a range of 12 kilometres (7.46 mi).[19] Several days into the siege more guns of various calibers were deployed.

The German army concentrated its attack on the First, Second and Third Forts, the complex's oldest structures. The entire fortress was not surrounded by the attacking forces, providing flexibility for its defenders to regroup and resupply. On August 8, the Germans intensified their bombardment, but the fortress garrison withstood attempts to breach the defensive perimeter several times. After several days, the bombardment of the fortress reached its peak; the defenders sustained a tremendous number of casualties, ranging from 50 to 75 percent.[9] On August 14, over 1,000 defending troops were killed.[9] Nevertheless, the Germans were unable to breach the fortress' defenses. The next day, August 15, Gamma-Gerät shells destroyed the First Fort and the Germans switched the attack to the Second Fort. The fight was now within the confines of the greater fortress complex.

At the cost of many casualties the Third Fort's defenders temporarily delayed the advance of the Germans, but were forced to evacuate and retreat later the same day. The next day the Fourth Fort was abandoned and the Fifth Fort was conquered soon afterwards. In a chain reaction, the other forts began capitulating. Grigoriev abandoned his soldiers and escaped to Žiežmariai.[13] When the Germans crossed the Nemunas river they captured the Sixth and Seventh Forts. The remaining two forts were captured soon afterwards. After eleven days of fighting, the fortress had been taken.[1]

The defensive forces sustained 20,000 casualties, and around 1,300[20] weapons were captured by the Germans.[18] Grigoriev was arrested by Russian authorities, tried, and sentenced to fifteen years in prison for failure to properly perform his duties. He also suffered the revocation of all his awards, military degrees, and honors. The Germans used materials from the Fortress elsewhere during their war against Russia.[14]

Researchers have identified several factors contributing to the relatively rapid fall of the fortress. Apart from the fact that the fortress had not been completely renovated, its defenders were inexperienced.[21][22] The crew had been frequently rotated, and had not been able to familiarize themselves with the surrounding area and with the fortress.[21] Although most of their experience lay in the defense of the fortress' interior, they were dispatched to fight on open ground.[21] When the combat moved outside the fortress, communication lines were disrupted by the German bombardment, and the fortress defense was unable to restore complete communication with the command center or with other forts.[21][22] The absence of outside support was also a crucial factor in its fall.[21]

Interwar

Reconstructed Ninth Fort

Lithuania regained its independence on February 16 1918 and the old fortress was placed under engineering staff supervision. Those material that had not been taken by the Germans were used to resupply Lithuanian military needs, and for the construction of the armored train Gediminas, named after the 14th century Grand Duke of Lithuania, Gediminas. In 1920, the Kaunas Fortress Board was formed and charged with the task of administering the fortress. Due to the development of new military technologies, its reconstruction was seen as inappropriate as well as vastly expensive. The fortress' armament was dismantled and the trenches were filled with scrap iron.[23]

Sections of the fortress were given to various official institutions. The Sixth and Ninth forts were used as prisons and the Central Archive was located in the Seventh Fort.[9][23] The army occupied the barracks of the former 28th Division. The Republic's official radio station was based in the fortress. A gas chamber used to execute prisoners who had received the death penalty by law was installed in the gunpowder depot of the First Fort.[23] Some sections were used as housing for the poor. As the city of Kaunas expanded near the complex, its old roads became public streets. The structures and layouts of the new sections were influenced by the presence of the fortress.[24]

World War II

Further information: Ninth Fort
A 32-metre tall memorial to the victims

Adjustments of the secret protocols of the 1939 Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact assigned Lithuania to the Soviet sphere of influence, and it was occupied by the USSR in June 1940.[25] The fortress was then used to conduct interrogations and house political prisoners. The pact was broken when Germany invaded Russia on June 22, 1941. Nazi forces entered Kaunas on June 24th.[3] The Sixth Fort became a POW camp for Red Army soldiers.[26] The Nazis, aided by Lithuanian auxiliaries (most infamously, the Ypatingasis būrys), began massacring the Jewish population. On July 6th, acting under orders of the SS, Lithuanian auxiliary police units shot nearly 3,000 Jews at the Seventh Fort.[27] On August 18th, in what came to be known as the "intellectuals action," over 1,800 Jews were shot at the Fourth Fort. On October 28th the "Great Action" took place - the residents of the Kaunas Ghetto were summoned, and over 9,000 men, women and children were taken to the Ninth Fort and executed. During the later course of the occupation, over 5,000 Jewish deportees from Central Europe would be executed at this fort. About 60 escaped in December 1943; they had been assigned to excavate and burn the bodies of earlier victims, as part of Aktion 1005. Thirteen of these escapees were able to document the Aktion's attempt to hide the evidence of the mass murders.[3]

When Germany began losing the war, and the battlefront approached Lithuania, the German defense began attempts to prepare a defensive in Kaunas, including the use of the fortress. The Nemunas River was labelled "the line of catastrophe", and Adolf Hitler called for its defense at any price.[26] On August 1, 1944 Kaunas was captured by the Red Army. The remaining fortress structures were used for military needs and several of the original structures were demolished or redeveloped.[26]

The number of deaths at the Fortress during World War II vary by source; the United States Holocaust Museum gives detailed descriptions of the deaths of about 18,500 Holocaust victims.[3] Other sources mention 30,000 total deaths.[28] A memorial plaque at the field outside the Ninth Fort states that 50,000 people, including Russians, Jews, Lithuanians, and others, are buried there.[29]

Post-war

The headquarters of the Fortress' commandant, currently housing the Lithuanian Air Forces

Lithuania remained a Soviet Socialist Republic until 1990. In 1948, the headquarters of the 7th Guard paratrooper unit was established in the Fortress' commandant's headquarters. The barracks were used by the 108th paratroopers regiment and the Fifth Fort served the air defense regiment. Most of the forts, however, served as depots or housed farming organizations.[26][28] During the postwar expansion and development of the city, parts of the fortress were dismantled; as part of the construction of Kaunas Polytechnic Institute the ground-level entrenchments of one defensive sector were destroyed.[26]

In 1958, the Ninth Fort was dedicated as a museum.[30] During 1959, its first exhibition was opened, memorializing the crimes that had taken place there.[30] The museum later expanded its scope to cover the fortress' entire history. A 32-metre-tall memorial to the victims was constructed there in 1984. However, the Soviet military occupied most of the fortress until Lithuania re-established its independence. After the withdrawal of Soviet forces, completed in 1993, Lithuanian military bases were established at the Fourth and Eighth forts, and the remainder of the forts fell into disuse.[31]

As of early 2007, only the Ninth Fort had been completely renovated. The Ninth Fort Museum is now devoted to the Holocaust and Lithuania's occupations by the Nazis and the Soviets.[30] The museum holds over 65,000 artefacts.[30] In 2005, the international project "Baltic Culture and Tourism Route Fortresses" was launched, with support from the European Union. Its goal is the promotion of transnational scientific cooperation in monument protection, along with the creation of strategies to reconstruct and manage fortresses in the region. Kaunas Fortress is a part of this project.[32] Despite damage, the Kaunas Fortress complex is the only remaining fortress of the Russian Empire remaining in its entirety.[4]

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Kaunas Fortress.

Citations

  1. ^ a b c d e f Template:Lt icon Kauno tvirtovė. Kauno tvirtovės istorija.Retrieved on 2008-06-12
  2. ^ Orlov, Vladimir (2007). p.12
  3. ^ a b c d "1940-1944 Timeline - Kovno". United States Holocaust Museum. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
  4. ^ a b Orlov, Vladimir (2007) p.18
  5. ^ a b c "The Kaunas Fortress - overview". Baltic Fort Route. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
  6. ^ a b c d Template:Lt icon Nijolė Steponaitytė. Kauno tvirtovė. Retrieved on 2008-06-12
  7. ^ Template:Ru icon Дорога САНКТ - ПЕТЕРБУРГ - ЛУГА - ПСКОВ - РЕЗЕКНЕ - ВИЛЬНЮС – ВАРШАВА. История дороги.
  8. ^ a b Orlov, Vladimir (2007). p.15
  9. ^ a b c d e f g Template:Lt icon Iš Kauno tvirtovės fortų istorijos
  10. ^ a b Pociūnas, Arvydas (2008) p.14
  11. ^ "Brief Historical Overview of Kaunas Fortress". Transnational Documentation and Inventorisation Centre Fortresess (TDICF). Retrieved 2005-05-21.
  12. ^ a b c Orlov, Vladimir (2007). p.15
  13. ^ a b c d Zinkus, Jonas (1979). p.395
  14. ^ a b c Kviklys, Bronius (1991). p.242-243
  15. ^ a b Orlov, Vladimir (2007) p.52-54
  16. ^ Orlov, Vladimir (2007) p.50
  17. ^ Pociūnas, Arvydas (2008). p.18
  18. ^ a b Template:Ru icon БИОГРАФИЧЕСКИЙ УКАЗАТЕЛЬ. Григорьев, Владимир Николаевич.
  19. ^ Encyclopedia of the Guns of World War II. German heavy mortar
  20. ^ Cornish, Nik (2001). p.7
  21. ^ a b c d e Pociūnas, Arvydas (2008) p.121
  22. ^ a b Kauno tvirtovė 1915 m.. Retrieved on 2008-05-15
  23. ^ a b c "Brief Historical Overview of Kaunas Fortress". INTERREG-project BFR. Retrieved 2008-05-23.
  24. ^ Template:Lt icon Nijolė Steponaitytė. Kauno tvirtovė 2007 01 08 Retrieved on 2008-05-20
  25. ^ Anušauskas, Arvydas (2007). p.61
  26. ^ a b c d e Template:Lt icon Tvirtovių istorijos centras. Kauno tvirtovė Retrieved on 2008-05-20
  27. ^ Gitelman, Zvi (1997). p.208
  28. ^ a b "Kaunas' Ninth Fort Museum". Museums of Lithuania. Retrieved 2008-05-23.
  29. ^ "A Teacher's Guide to the Holocaust - Ninth Fort". University of South Florida. Retrieved 2008-05-23.
  30. ^ a b c d Template:Lt icon Lietuvos muziejai. Kauno IX forto muziejus. Retrieved on 2008-05-15.
  31. ^ Template:Lt iconTvirtovės istorija. Retrieved on 2008-05-15
  32. ^ BSR INTERREG III B programme. Baltic Culture and Tourism Route Fortresses

Publications

  • Cornish, Nik (2001). The Russian Army 1914-18. Ospreypublishing. pp. p.48. ISBN 1841763039. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Template:Lt icon Anušauskas, Arvydas (2007). Lietuva 1940–1990: okupuotos Lietuvos istorija. pp. p.712. ISBN 9955-601-47-7. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Gitelman, Zvi (1997). Bitter Legacy: Confronting the Holocaust in the USSR. Indiana University Press. pp. p.332. ISBN 0253333598. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Template:Lt icon Kviklys, Bronius (1991). Mūsų Lietuva. T-2. Vilnius:Mintis. pp. p. 752. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Template:Lt icon Pociūnas, Arvydas (2008). Kauno tvirtovės gynyba 1915 metais. Vilnius: Generolo Jono Žemaičio Lietuvos karo akademija. pp. p.186. ISBN 978-9955-423-64-5. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Template:Lt icon Orlov, Vladimir (2007). Kauno tvirtovės istorija. Kaunas. pp. p. 160. ISBN 978-9955-638-97-1. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Template:Lt icon Zinkus, Jonas (1979). Lietuviškoji tarybinė enciklopedija. T-5. Vilnius : Mokslas. pp. p.640. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

External links

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