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| image= Edward the Martyr.jpg
| image= Edward the Martyr.jpg
| rank=14th
| rank=14th
| reign=[[8 July]] [[975]]–[[18 March]] [[978]]
| reign=8 July 975–18 March 978
| predecessor=[[Edgar of England|Edgar]]
| predecessor=[[Edgar of England|Edgar]]
| successor=[[Ethelred the Unready|Æthelred]]
| successor=[[Ethelred the Unready|Æthelred]]
| date of birth=[[circa]] 962
| date of birth=[[circa]] 962
| place of birth=
| place of birth=
| date of death={{death date|978|3|18|mf=y}}
| date of death={{death date|df=yes|978|3|18}}
| place of death=[[Corfe Castle]], [[Dorset]], [[England]]
| place of death=[[Corfe Castle]], [[Dorset]], England
| place of burial=[[Wareham, Dorset|Wareham]]
| place of burial=[[Wareham, Dorset|Wareham]]
| spouse=
| spouse=
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|issues=
|issues=
}}
}}
'''Edward the Martyr''' or '''Eadweard II''' (c. 962–[[18 March]] [[978]]) was [[king of England]] from 975 until he was murdered in 978. Edward is thought to have been the son of King [[Edgar of England|Edgar]] and Æthelflæd. His succession to the throne was contested by supporters of his half-brother [[Ethelred the Unready|Æthelred]], but with [[Dunstan]]'s support, Edward was acknowledged by the [[Witan]] and crowned king by Dunstan and [[Oswald of Worcester]].
'''Edward the Martyr''' or '''Eadweard II''' (c. 962–18 March 978) was [[king of England]] from 975 until he was murdered in 978. Edward is thought to have been the son of King [[Edgar of England|Edgar]] and Æthelflæd. His succession to the throne was contested by supporters of his half-brother [[Ethelred the Unready|Æthelred]], but with [[Dunstan]]'s support, Edward was acknowledged by the [[Witan]] and crowned king by Dunstan and [[Oswald of Worcester]].


Edward's reign was short and disturbed by factional strife. He was killed at [[Corfe Castle]] by servants of his stepmother the [[Queen Dowager]] [[Ælfthryth, Queen of England|Ælfthryth]] (Elfrida) on [[18 March]] [[978]]. Edward became known as "the Martyr" because of his violent end, the fact that the party opposed to him had been irreligious, and the fact that he himself had always acted as a defender of the Church. Within a short time he was regarded as a [[saint]] and his [[Cult (religious practice)|cult]] was established at [[Shaftesbury Abbey]] where he had been reburied [[circa]] 980. Many miracles were reported at the tomb of St Edward, including the healing of lepers and the blind.<ref name="life" /> He is recognized as a saint in the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], the [[Roman Catholic Church]], and the [[Anglican Communion]].
Edward's reign was short and disturbed by factional strife. He was killed at [[Corfe Castle]] by servants of his stepmother the [[Queen Dowager]] [[Ælfthryth, Queen of England|Ælfthryth]] (Elfrida) on 18 March 978. Edward became known as "the Martyr" because of his violent end, the fact that the party opposed to him had been irreligious, and the fact that he himself had always acted as a defender of the Church. Within a short time he was regarded as a [[saint]] and his [[Cult (religious practice)|cult]] was established at [[Shaftesbury Abbey]] where he had been reburied [[circa]] 980. Many miracles were reported at the tomb of St Edward, including the healing of lepers and the blind.<ref name="life" /> He is recognized as a saint in the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], the [[Roman Catholic Church]], and the [[Anglican Communion]].


==Life==
==Ætheling==
His date of birth is unknown, but it is likely that he was a teenager when he suceeded his father in 975, and was the eldest of Edgar's three children.<ref name=Higham7>Higham, 7</ref> All that can be said with certainty of Edward's parentage is that he was King Edgar's son, but not the son of Queen Ælfthryth. This much and no more is known from contemporary [[charters]].<ref>Hart, 783; Williams, 2; ...</ref> For further information on Edward's mother it is necessary to rely on later sources of uncertain reliability.
Edward is generally supposed to have been the son of King [[Edgar of England|Edgar]] and Æthelflæd, but other sources indicate that his mother may have been Edgar's second wife, or mistress, Wulfthryth, later [[Wilton Abbey|Abbess of Wilton]].<ref name="miller">{{cite book | last =Miller | first =Sean | authorlink = | coauthors = | chapter =Edward the Martyr | publisher =Blackwell | date =1999 | location =Oxford | pages = | title = Blackwell Encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon England | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 0-631-22492-0}}</ref> By 965 Edgar had married [[Ælfthryth, Queen of England|Ælfthryth]], who would give him two sons, Edmund, who died young, and Æthelred.<ref name="stafford">{{cite book | last =Stafford | first =Pauline
| authorlink = | coauthors = | chapter = Ælfthryth | title = Blackwell Encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon England | publisher =Blackwell | date =1999
| location =Oxford | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 0-631-22492-0}}</ref> Although Edmund died circa 970, his brother Æthelred is likely to have inherited his position as favoured [[heir apparent|heir]].<ref name="miller" /> Edgar's actual plans for the succession can only be conjecture as he died, still a young man aged about 32, on [[8 July]] [[975]], leaving two sons, neither yet an adult.<ref name="miller" />


The earliest of such source is a life of [[Dunstan]] by [[Osbern of Canterbury]], probably written in the 1080s. Osbern writes that Edward's mother was a nun at [[Wilton Abbey]] whom the king seduced.<ref>Hart, 783; Williams, 3.</ref> When [[Eadmer]] wrote a life of Dunstan some decades later, he included an account of Edward's parentage obtained from [[Nicholas of Worcester]]. This denied that Edward was the son of a liaison between Edgar and a nun, and instead presented him the son of one Æthelflæd, daughter of Ordmær, "ealdorman of the East Anglians", whom Edgar had married in the years when he ruled [[Mercia]], that is between 957 and [[Eadwig]]'s death in 959.<ref>Williams, 3&ndash;4.</ref> Yet further accounts are offered by [[Goscelin]] in his life of Edgar's daughter Saint [[Edith of Wilton]], and in the histories of [[John of Worcester]] and [[William of Malmesbury]].<ref>Hart, ibid; Williams, 4&ndash;5.</ref> Summarising these various accounts Edward's mother probably was a noblewoman named Æthelflæd, surnamed ''Candida'' or ''Eneda''&mdash;"the White" or "White Duck".<ref name=Higham6>Higham, 6</ref>
⚫
Edward's accession to the throne on his father's death in 975 was opposed by a group who was bent on securing the crown for Æthelred, then aged seven.<ref name="ce">{{cite web | title =St Edward the Martyr | work =Catholic Encyclopedia | publisher =Robert Appleton Company | date =1909 | url =http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05323a.htm | accessdate=2007-09-21}}</ref> The succession was disputed, not by Edgar's sons, but by their supporters. Æthelred's cause was led by his mother, the Queen Dowager Ælfthryth, and included [[Ealdorman]] [[Ælfhere, Ealdorman of Mercia|Ælfhere]] and Bishop [[Æthelwold of Winchester]].<ref name="miller" /><ref name ="high">{{cite book
| last =Higham | first =Nick | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =The Death of Anglo-Saxon England | publisher =Stroud | date =1997 | location =Sutton | pages = 7&ndash;8 | url = | doi = | id = | isbn =0-7509-2469-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last =Stafford | first =Pauline | authorlink =
| coauthors = | title =Unification and Conquest: A Political and Social History of England in the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries | publisher =Edward Arnold | date =1989 | location =London | pages =58 | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 0-7131-6532-4}}</ref> Edward's claim, however, was supported by [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] [[Dunstan|St Dunstan]] and [[Archbishop of York]] [[Oswald of Worcester]].<ref name="ce" /> Other supporters included nobles, such as [[Æthelwine, Ealdorman of East Anglia|Ælfwine]] and [[Byrhtnoth]].


Whoever Edward's mother was, it appears that she was dead or had been repudiated by 966 when a charter describes Ælfthryth, whom Edgar had married in 964, as the king's "lawful wife", and their son Edmund as legitimate son of the king. Edward is merely the king's son.<ref>Williams, 2; John, 120. [John's asides?]</ref> Ælfthryth was Edgar's third wife, and was the widow of Æthelwold, ealdorman of East Anglia.<ref>Stafford, 52, 57</ref>

==Disputed succession==
Although Edmund died circa 970, his brother Æthelred may have inherited his position as favoured [[heir apparent|heir]].<ref name="miller" /> Edgar's intentions may have been signaled by the fact that on a charter to the New Minster at Winchester, the names of Ælfthryth and her son Æthelred appear ahead of Edward's name.<ref name=Higham7/> Edgar's actual plans for the succession can only be conjecture as he died, still a young man aged about 32, on 8 July 975, leaving two sons, neither yet an adult.<ref name="miller">Miller, "Edward the Martyr".</ref>

⚫
Edward's accession to the throne on his father's death in 975 was opposed by a group who was bent on securing the crown for Æthelred, then aged seven.<ref name=Higham7/><ref name="ce">{{cite web | title =St Edward the Martyr | work =Catholic Encyclopedia | publisher =Robert Appleton Company | date =1909 | url =http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05323a.htm | accessdate=2007-09-21}}</ref> The succession was disputed, not by Edgar's sons, but by their supporters. Æthelred's cause was led by his mother, the Queen Dowager Ælfthryth, and included [[Ealdorman]] [[Ælfhere, Ealdorman of Mercia|Ælfhere]] and Bishop [[Æthelwold of Winchester]].<ref name="miller" /><ref name ="high">Higham, 7-8.</ref><ref name="Stafford">Stafford, 58</ref> Edward's claim, however, was supported by [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] [[Dunstan|St Dunstan]] and [[Archbishop of York]] [[Oswald of Worcester]].<ref name=Higham7/><ref name="ce" /> Other supporters included nobles, such as [[Æthelwine, Ealdorman of East Anglia|Ælfwine]], brother of Ælfthryth's first husband,<ref>Stafford, 58</ref> and [[Byrhtnoth]], the ealdorman of Essex.<ref>Loyn, 17</ref> Dunstan's support may have been gained because the archbishop considered Edgar's marriage to Ælfthryth adulterous.<ref name=Higham8>Higham, 8</ref> Because of the support of both archbishops and two powerful ealdormen, Edward was named king.<ref name=Higham8/>

==Edward's reign==
With Dunstan's support, Edward was acknowledged by the [[Witan]] and he was crowned by Dunstan himself. Though only thirteen, the young king had already shown himself to be a serious [[Christian]].<ref name="ce" /> According to Theodoric Paulus, Edward "was a young man of great devotion and excellent conduct. He lived a completely orthodox, good and holy life. Moreover, he loved above all things God and the Church. He was generous to the poor, a haven to the good, a champion of the Faith of Christ, a vessel full of every virtuous grace."<ref>Quoted in ''[http://www.roca.org/OA/ Orthodox America]'', May-June, 1981 (Issue 10, Vol. 1, No. 11 - 12).</ref>
With Dunstan's support, Edward was acknowledged by the [[Witan]] and he was crowned by Dunstan himself. Though only thirteen, the young king had already shown himself to be a serious [[Christian]].<ref name="ce" /> According to Theodoric Paulus, Edward "was a young man of great devotion and excellent conduct. He lived a completely orthodox, good and holy life. Moreover, he loved above all things God and the Church. He was generous to the poor, a haven to the good, a champion of the Faith of Christ, a vessel full of every virtuous grace."<ref>Quoted in ''[http://www.roca.org/OA/ Orthodox America]'', May-June, 1981 (Issue 10, Vol. 1, No. 11 - 12).</ref>


On King Edward's [[accession]] to the throne a famine was starving the kingdom and violent attacks were made against [[monastery|monasteries]] by prominent Mercian noblemen. These assaults were led by Ælfhere, who demanded the lands which his father King [[Edgar of England|Edgar]] had endowed to the monks. Many of these monasteries were destroyed and the monks were forced to flee.<ref name="LL">{{cite book | last =Longford | first =Elizabeth | authorlink =
On King Edward's [[accession]] to the throne a famine was starving the kingdom<ref name=Higham7/> and violent attacks were made against [[monastery|monasteries]] by prominent Mercian noblemen. These assaults were led by Ælfhere, who demanded the lands which his father King [[Edgar of England|Edgar]] had endowed to the monks.<ref name=Higham9>Higham, 9</ref> Many of these monasteries were destroyed and the monks were forced to flee.<ref name="LL">{{cite book | last =Longford | first =Elizabeth | title =Oxford Book of Royal Anecdotes | publisher =Oxford Univ. Press | date =1991 | location =Oxford | pages =29-30 | isbn = 0-19-282851-7}}</ref> The attacks were part of a power struggle between Ælfhere and Oswald.<ref name=Higham9/> Another source of tension was the exile of Oslac, the earldorman of Northumbria, who was driven from Northumbria by enemies.<ref name=Higham10/> This exile, in 976, destabilised the northern part of the kingdom, and removed a potential source of support for the king.<ref name=Higham13>Higham, 13</ref> The king, however, stood firm together with Archbishop [[Dunstan]] in defence of the Church and the monasteries. Many of the problems of his reign, such as this anti-monastic reaction and other disputes between the ealdormen, were made worse by the young king's lack of experience.
| coauthors = | title =Oxford Book of Royal Anecdotes | publisher =Oxford Univ. Press | date =1991 | location =Oxford | pages =29-30 | url = | doi =
| id = | isbn = 0-19-282851-7}}</ref> The king, however, stood firm together with Archbishop [[Dunstan]] in defence of the Church and the monasteries. Many of the problems of his reign, such as this anti-monastic reaction and other disputes between the ealdormen, were made worse by the young king's lack of experience.


During his brief reign of three and a half years, it was recorded that he won the affection of his people with his upright behavior.<ref name="ce" /> Edward himself, however, was not without fault. He "had offended many important persons by his intolerable violence of speech and behavior. Long after he had passed into veneration as a saint it was remembered that his outbursts of rage had alarmed all who knew him, and especially the members of his own household."<ref name="sten">{{cite book | last =Stenton | first =Sir Frank | authorlink = Frank Stenton | coauthors = | title =Anglo-Saxon England
During his brief reign of three and a half years, it was recorded that he won the affection of his people with his upright behavior.<ref name="ce" /> Edward himself, however, was not without fault. He "had offended many important persons by his intolerable violence of speech and behavior. Long after he had passed into veneration as a saint it was remembered that his outbursts of rage had alarmed all who knew him, and especially the members of his own household."<ref name="Stenton">Stenton, p. 372.</ref> His reign was marked by a number of disputes between the clergy and the nobles, which do not easily lend themselves to easy categorization. The king appointed a number of new ealdormen, including Æthelweard and Æthelmaer in Wessex, and Edwin in Sussex. These appointments were part of an attempt to build up support for his faction within the kingdom.<ref name=Higham10>Higham, 9-12</ref>
| publisher =Oxford University Press | date =1971 | location =Oxford
| pages =372 | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 0-19-280139-2}}</ref>


== Death ==
== Death ==
[[Image:death of edward martyr.jpg|150px|thumb|right|The death of Edward depicted in a Victorian edition of [[John Foxe|Foxe's]] ''[[Book of Martyrs]]''.]]
[[Image:death of edward martyr.jpg|150px|thumb|right|The death of Edward depicted in a Victorian edition of [[John Foxe|Foxe's]] ''[[Book of Martyrs]]''.]]
Edward's short reign was brought to an end during a visit to his stepmother and stepbrother. On [[March 18]], [[978]], the king was hunting with dogs and horsemen near [[Wareham, Dorset|Wareham]] in [[Dorset]]. During this activity, the king decided to visit his young brother Ethelred who was being brought up in the house of his mother Ælfthryth at [[Corfe Castle]], near Wareham. Separated from his retinue, the King arrived alone at the castle. While still on his horse in the lower part of the castle, Ælfthryth offered Edward a glass of [[mead]] and, while he was drinking it, he was stabbed by one of the queen's party. He rode away, but soon fell from his horse and was dragged with one foot in the stirrup until the corpse fell into a stream at the base of the hill upon which [[Corfe Castle]] stands. Legend would later claim that his corpse was revealed by a pillar of light.<ref name="ce" /> Æthelred himself was then only ten years old, so was not implicated in the murder. An alternative account comes from [[Henry of Huntingdon]] who alleges that Ælfthryth herself committed the murder:
Edward's short reign was brought to an end during a visit to his stepmother and stepbrother. On 18 March, 978, the king was hunting with dogs and horsemen near [[Wareham, Dorset|Wareham]] in [[Dorset]]. During this activity, the king decided to visit his young brother Ethelred who was being brought up in the house of his mother Ælfthryth at [[Corfe Castle]], near Wareham. Separated from his retinue, the King arrived alone at the castle. While still on his horse in the lower part of the castle, Ælfthryth offered Edward a glass of [[mead]] and, while he was drinking it, he was stabbed by one of the queen's party. He rode away, but soon fell from his horse and was dragged with one foot in the stirrup until the corpse fell into a stream at the base of the hill upon which [[Corfe Castle]] stands. Legend would later claim that his corpse was revealed by a pillar of light.<ref name="ce" /> Æthelred himself was then only ten years old, so was not implicated in the murder. An alternative account comes from [[Henry of Huntingdon]] who alleges that Ælfthryth herself committed the murder:


{{cquote|Edward was treasonably slain by his own family... it is reported that his stepmother, that is the mother of King Ethelred, stabbed him with a dagger while she was in the act of offering him a cup to drink.<ref>{{cite book | last =Forester (translator) | first =Thomas | authorlink = | coauthors =
{{blockquote|Edward was treasonably slain by his own family... it is reported that his stepmother, that is the mother of King Ethelred, stabbed him with a dagger while she was in the act of offering him a cup to drink.<ref>{{cite book | last =Forester (translator) | first =Thomas | authorlink = | coauthors =
| title =The Chronicle of Henry of Huntingdon | publisher =Henry G. Bohn | date =1853 | location =London | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = }}</ref>}}
| title =The Chronicle of Henry of Huntingdon | publisher =Henry G. Bohn | date =1853 | location =London | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = }}</ref>}}


== Legacy ==
== Legacy ==
His body was hastily buried without royal honours at Wareham.<ref name="miller" /><ref name="stafford" /><ref name="high" /><ref name="sten" /> The queen then ordered that the body be quickly hidden in a hut nearby. Within the hut, however, there lived a woman blind from birth whom the queen supported out of charity. During the night, a light reportedly appeared and filled the whole hut. Struck with awe, the woman cried out: "Lord, have mercy!" and suddenly received her sight. At this she discovered the dead body of the king. The [[Church of St. Edward]] at [[Corfe Castle]] now stands on the traditional site of this [[miracle]]. At dawn the queen learned of the miracle and was troubled, and again ordered the disposal of the body, this time by burying it in a marshy place near [[Wareham, Dorset|Wareham]]. A year after the murder however, a pillar of fire was seen over the place where the body was hidden, lighting up the whole area. This was seen by some of the inhabitants of Wareham, who disinterred the body. Immediately, a clear spring of healing water sprang up in that place.<ref name="life" /> Accompanied by what was now a huge crowd of mourners, the body was taken to the church of the Most Holy Mother of God in Wareham and buried at the east end of the church.<ref name="LL" /> This took place on [[February 13]], [[980]].<ref name="Sted">{{cite web | last = Moss | first = Vladimir | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =Edward, the Martyr and Passion-bearer, King of England | work =http://www.orthodox.net/| publisher = St Nicholas Russian Orthodox Church Dallas Texas | date = | url =http://www.orthodox.net/western-saints/edward.html | format = | doi = | accessdate = 2007-10-05}}</ref>
His body was hastily buried without royal honours at Wareham.<ref name="miller" /><ref name="high" /><ref name="Stenton" /> The queen then ordered that the body be quickly hidden in a hut nearby. Within the hut, however, there lived a woman blind from birth whom the queen supported out of charity. During the night, a light reportedly appeared and filled the whole hut. Struck with awe, the woman cried out: "Lord, have mercy!" and suddenly received her sight. At this she discovered the dead body of the king. The [[Church of St. Edward]] at [[Corfe Castle]] now stands on the traditional site of this [[miracle]]. At dawn the queen learned of the miracle and was troubled, and again ordered the disposal of the body, this time by burying it in a marshy place near [[Wareham, Dorset|Wareham]]. A year after the murder however, a pillar of fire was seen over the place where the body was hidden, lighting up the whole area. This was seen by some of the inhabitants of Wareham, who disinterred the body. Immediately, a clear spring of healing water sprang up in that place.<ref name="life" /> Accompanied by what was now a huge crowd of mourners, the body was taken to the church of the Most Holy Mother of God in Wareham and buried at the east end of the church.<ref name="LL" /> This took place in 980 and was initiated by Ælfhere of Mercia, perhaps as a gesture of reconcilliation.<ref>Stafford, 59</ref>


[[Image:Corfe Castle2.jpg|thumb|100px|left|Corfe Castle from below.]]
[[Image:Corfe Castle2.jpg|thumb|100px|left|Corfe Castle from below.]]
The stream where his body had first been found was also believed to have healing properties, particularly for the blind.<ref name="life" /> On account of this and a series of subsequent miracles, the relics were translated to the abbey at [[Shaftesbury]]. When the relics were taken up from the grave, they were found to be whole and [[incorrupt]]. The [[Translation (relics)|translation]] of the relics was overseen by Dunstan and Earl Ælfhere of Mercia, who in Edgar's lifetime had been one of his chief opponents.<ref name="ce" /> This occurred in a great [[procession]] on [[February 13]], [[981]] and arrived at Shaftesbury seven days later. There the relics were received by the [[nun]]s of [[Shaftesbury Abbey]] and were buried with full royal honours on the north side of the [[altar]].<ref name="LL" /> On the way from Wareham to Shaftesbury, a further miracle had also taken place; two crippled men were brought close to the bier and those carrying it lowered the body to their level, where upon the cripples were immediately restored to full health.<ref name="Sted" /> This procession and these events were re-enacted 1000 years later in 1981. Many other miracles are said to have been obtained through his intercession. Ælfthryth, struck with repentance for her crimes, built the two monasteries of Wherwell and Ambresbury, in the first of which she ended her days in penance.<ref name="Sted" />
The stream where his body had first been found was also believed to have healing properties, particularly for the blind.<ref name="life" /> On account of this and a series of subsequent miracles, the relics were translated to the abbey at [[Shaftesbury]]. When the relics were taken up from the grave, they were found to be whole and [[incorrupt]]. The [[Translation (relics)|translation]] of the relics was overseen by Dunstan and Earl Ælfhere of Mercia, who in Edgar's lifetime had been one of his chief opponents.<ref name="ce" /> This occurred in a great [[procession]] on 13 February, 981 and arrived at Shaftesbury seven days later. There the relics were received by the [[nun]]s of [[Shaftesbury Abbey]] and were buried with full royal honours on the north side of the [[altar]].<ref name="LL" /> On the way from Wareham to Shaftesbury, a further miracle had also taken place; two crippled men were brought close to the bier and those carrying it lowered the body to their level, where upon the cripples were immediately restored to full health.<ref name="Sted" /> This procession and these events were re-enacted 1000 years later in 1981. Many other miracles are said to have been obtained through his intercession. Ælfthryth, struck with repentance for her crimes, built the two monasteries of Wherwell and Ambresbury, in the first of which she ended her days in penance.<ref name="Sted">{{cite web | last = Moss | first = Vladimir | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =Edward, the Martyr and Passion-bearer, King of England | work =http://www.orthodox.net/| publisher = St Nicholas Russian Orthodox Church Dallas Texas | date = | url =http://www.orthodox.net/western-saints/edward.html | format = | doi = | accessdate = 2007-10-05}}</ref>


[[Image:Shaftesbury Abbey.jpg|thumb|The Great Seal of Shaftesbury Abbey, where Edward's relics lay until the [[English Reformation|Reformation.]]]]
[[Image:Shaftesbury Abbey.jpg|thumb|The Great Seal of Shaftesbury Abbey, where Edward's relics lay until the [[English Reformation|Reformation.]]]]
In 1001, it was recorded that the tomb in which the saint lay was observed regularly to rise from the ground.<ref name="life" /> King [[Ethelred the Unready|Ethelred]] was filled with joy at this and instructed the bishops to raise his brother's tomb from the ground and place it into a more fitting place. As the tomb was opened a wonderful fragrance issued from it, such that all present "thought that they were standing in Paradise."<ref name="life" /> The bishops then bore away the sacred relics from the tomb and placed them in a casket in the holy place of the saints together with other holy relics. This elevation of the relics of Edward took place on [[20 June]] [[1001]].<ref name="life" />
In 1001, it was recorded that the tomb in which the saint lay was observed regularly to rise from the ground.<ref name="life" /> King [[Ethelred the Unready|Ethelred]] was filled with joy at this and instructed the bishops to raise his brother's tomb from the ground and place it into a more fitting place. As the tomb was opened a wonderful fragrance issued from it, such that all present "thought that they were standing in Paradise."<ref name="life" /> The bishops then bore away the sacred relics from the tomb and placed them in a casket in the holy place of the saints together with other holy relics. This elevation of the relics of Edward took place on 20 June 1001.<ref name="life" />


Edward was given the title of Martyr for three reasons: his violent end, the fact that the party opposed to him had been irreligious, and the fact that he himself had always acted as a defender of the Church. This title was given to him in a number of church calendars.<ref name="ce" /> Edward was officially glorified by the All-English Council of 1008, presided over by [[St Alphege]], archbishop of Canterbury (who was later also martyred by the Danes in 1012). King Ethelred ordered that the saint's three feast days (March 18, February 13 and June 20) should be celebrated throughout England. Shaftesbury Abbey was rededicated to the Mother of God and St Edward. Shaftesbury was apparently renamed "Edwardstowe," only reverting to its original name after the Reformation. Many miracles were recorded at the tomb of St Edward, including the healing of lepers and the blind.<ref name="life" />
Edward was given the title of Martyr for three reasons: his violent end, the fact that the party opposed to him had been irreligious, and the fact that he himself had always acted as a defender of the Church. This title was given to him in a number of church calendars.<ref name="ce" /> Edward was officially glorified by the All-English Council of 1008, presided over by [[St Alphege]], archbishop of Canterbury (who was later also martyred by the Danes in 1012). King Ethelred ordered that the saint's three feast days (18 March, 13 February and 20 June) should be celebrated throughout England. Shaftesbury Abbey was rededicated to the Mother of God and St Edward. Shaftesbury was apparently renamed "Edwardstowe," only reverting to its original name after the Reformation. Many miracles were recorded at the tomb of St Edward, including the healing of lepers and the blind.<ref name="life" />


===Since the Reformation===
===Since the Reformation===
Line 85: Line 85:
| year = | url =http://www.serfes.org/lives/stedward.htm | accessdate =2007-09-26}}</ref> In 1931, the relics were recovered by Mr. Wilson-Claridge during an archaeological excavation; their identity was confirmed by Dr. T.E.A. Stowell, an osteologist. In 1970, examinations performed on the relics suggested that the young man had died in the same manner as Edward.<ref name="NN">{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =St Edward the Martyr | work =Necropolis Notables | publisher =The Brookwood Cemetery Society | date = | url =http://www.tbcs.org.uk/st_edward_the_martyr.htm | format = | doi = | accessdate = 2007-09-21}}</ref> Mr. Wilson-Claridge wanted the relics to go to the [[Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia]]. His brother, however, wanted them to be returned to Shaftesbury abbey. For decades, the relics were kept in a bank vault in [[Woking]], [[Surrey]] because of the unresolved dispute about which of two churches should have them.<ref name="LL" />
| year = | url =http://www.serfes.org/lives/stedward.htm | accessdate =2007-09-26}}</ref> In 1931, the relics were recovered by Mr. Wilson-Claridge during an archaeological excavation; their identity was confirmed by Dr. T.E.A. Stowell, an osteologist. In 1970, examinations performed on the relics suggested that the young man had died in the same manner as Edward.<ref name="NN">{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =St Edward the Martyr | work =Necropolis Notables | publisher =The Brookwood Cemetery Society | date = | url =http://www.tbcs.org.uk/st_edward_the_martyr.htm | format = | doi = | accessdate = 2007-09-21}}</ref> Mr. Wilson-Claridge wanted the relics to go to the [[Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia]]. His brother, however, wanted them to be returned to Shaftesbury abbey. For decades, the relics were kept in a bank vault in [[Woking]], [[Surrey]] because of the unresolved dispute about which of two churches should have them.<ref name="LL" />


In time, the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia won out and placed the relics in a church in [[Brookwood Cemetery]], in Woking. The St Edward Brotherhood of monks was organized there, as well.<ref name="NN" /> The church is now named [[St Edward the Martyr Orthodox Church]]. In the Orthodox Church, St Edward is ranked as a [[Passion-bearer]], a type of saint who accepts death out of love for Christ.<ref name="NN" /> Edward is recognized as a saint in the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and the [[Anglican Communion]].<ref name="ce" /><ref name="NN" /><ref name="Ste">{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =About St Edward's | work =St Edward King and Martyr | publisher = St Edward King and Martyr | date = | url =http://www.st-edwards-cam.org.uk/about.shtml | format = | doi = | accessdate = 2007-10-05}}</ref> His [[feast day]] is celebrated on March 18, the day of his murder.<ref name="ce" />
In time, the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia won out and placed the relics in a church in [[Brookwood Cemetery]], in Woking. The St Edward Brotherhood of monks was organized there, as well.<ref name="NN" /> The church is now named [[St Edward the Martyr Orthodox Church]]. In the Orthodox Church, St Edward is ranked as a [[Passion-bearer]], a type of saint who accepts death out of love for Christ.<ref name="NN" /> Edward is recognized as a saint in the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and the [[Anglican Communion]].<ref name="ce" /><ref name="NN" /><ref name="Ste">{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =About St Edward's | work =St Edward King and Martyr | publisher = St Edward King and Martyr | date = | url =http://www.st-edwards-cam.org.uk/about.shtml | format = | doi = | accessdate = 2007-10-05}}</ref> His [[feast day]] is celebrated on 18 March, the day of his murder.<ref name="ce" />


==See also==
==See also==
Line 91: Line 91:
*[[List of English monarchs]]
*[[List of English monarchs]]


==References==
==Notes==
{{reflist}}
{{reflist}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
* {{citation |url=http://www.jstor.org/pss/3021114 |last=Fisher |first=D. J. V. |title=The Anti-Monastic Reaction in the Reign of Edward the Martyr |journal=Cambridge Historical Journal |volume=10 |issue=3 |year=1952 |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=254&ndash;270}}
* {{citation |last=Hart |first=Cyril |contribution=Æthelwine <nowiki>[</nowiki>Ethelwine, Æthelwine Dei Amicus<nowiki>]</nowiki> (''d''. 992) |title=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/8919 |accessdate=2008-05-14}}
* {{citation |last=Hart |first=Cyril |contribution=Edward <nowiki>[</nowiki>St Edward ''called'' Edward the Martyr<nowiki>]</nowiki> (''c''. 962&ndash;978) |title=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/8515 |accessdate=2008-05-14 |volume=17 |pages=783&ndash;785}}
* {{citation |last=Higham |first=Nick |title=The Death of Anglo-Saxon England |location=Stroud |publisher=Sutton |year=1997 |isbn=0-7509-2469-1}}
* {{citation |last=John |first=Eric |title=Reassessing Anglo-Saxon England |location=Manchester |publisher=Manchester University Press |year=1996 |isbn=0-7190-4867-2}}
* {{cite book |author=Loyn, H. R. |authorlink= H. R. Loyn|title=The English Church, 940-1154 |publisher=Pearson Education |location=Upper Saddle River, NJ |year=2000 |isbn=0-582-30303-6 }}
* {{citation |last=Miller |first=Sean |contribution=Edgar |editor-first=Michael |editor-last=Lapidge |title=The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon England |location=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell |year=1999 |isbn=0-631-22492-0 |pages=158&ndash;159}}
* {{citation |last=Miller |first=Sean |contribution=Edward the Martyr |editor-first=Michael |editor-last=Lapidge |title=The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon England |location=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell |year=1999 |isbn=0-631-22492-0 |page=163}}
* {{citation |last=Stafford |first=Pauline |authorlink=Pauline Stafford |title=Unification and Conquest: A Political and Social History of England in the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries |location=London |publisher=Edward Arnold |date=1989 |isbn=0-7131-6532-4}}
* {{citation |last=Stafford |first=Pauline |contribution=Ælfthryth" |editor-first=Michael |editor-last=Lapidge |title=The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon England |location=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell |year=1999 |isbn=0-631-22492-0 |page=9}}
* {{citation |authorlink=Frank Stenton |last=Stenton |first=Frank |title=Anglo-Saxon England |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |edition=3rd |year=1971 |isbn=0-19-280139-2 }}
* {{citation |last=Williams |first=Ann |title=Æthelred the Unready: The Ill-Counselled King |publisher=Hambeldon & London |location=London |year=2003 |isbn=0-85285-382-4}}
{{refend}}


==Further reading==
==Further reading==

Revision as of 22:57, 31 October 2008

Not to be confused with Edmund the Martyr.


St Edward the Martyr
King of England
Reign8 July 975–18 March 978
PredecessorEdgar
SuccessorÆthelred
Burial
Wareham
FatherEdgar
MotherÆthelflæd or Wulfthryth

Template:Infobox Monarch Saint Edward the Martyr or Eadweard II (c. 962–18 March 978) was king of England from 975 until he was murdered in 978. Edward is thought to have been the son of King Edgar and Æthelflæd. His succession to the throne was contested by supporters of his half-brother Æthelred, but with Dunstan's support, Edward was acknowledged by the Witan and crowned king by Dunstan and Oswald of Worcester.

Edward's reign was short and disturbed by factional strife. He was killed at Corfe Castle by servants of his stepmother the Queen Dowager Ælfthryth (Elfrida) on 18 March 978. Edward became known as "the Martyr" because of his violent end, the fact that the party opposed to him had been irreligious, and the fact that he himself had always acted as a defender of the Church. Within a short time he was regarded as a saint and his cult was established at Shaftesbury Abbey where he had been reburied circa 980. Many miracles were reported at the tomb of St Edward, including the healing of lepers and the blind.[1] He is recognized as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Roman Catholic Church, and the Anglican Communion.

Ætheling

His date of birth is unknown, but it is likely that he was a teenager when he suceeded his father in 975, and was the eldest of Edgar's three children.[2] All that can be said with certainty of Edward's parentage is that he was King Edgar's son, but not the son of Queen Ælfthryth. This much and no more is known from contemporary charters.[3] For further information on Edward's mother it is necessary to rely on later sources of uncertain reliability.

The earliest of such source is a life of Dunstan by Osbern of Canterbury, probably written in the 1080s. Osbern writes that Edward's mother was a nun at Wilton Abbey whom the king seduced.[4] When Eadmer wrote a life of Dunstan some decades later, he included an account of Edward's parentage obtained from Nicholas of Worcester. This denied that Edward was the son of a liaison between Edgar and a nun, and instead presented him the son of one Æthelflæd, daughter of Ordmær, "ealdorman of the East Anglians", whom Edgar had married in the years when he ruled Mercia, that is between 957 and Eadwig's death in 959.[5] Yet further accounts are offered by Goscelin in his life of Edgar's daughter Saint Edith of Wilton, and in the histories of John of Worcester and William of Malmesbury.[6] Summarising these various accounts Edward's mother probably was a noblewoman named Æthelflæd, surnamed Candida or Eneda—"the White" or "White Duck".[7]

Whoever Edward's mother was, it appears that she was dead or had been repudiated by 966 when a charter describes Ælfthryth, whom Edgar had married in 964, as the king's "lawful wife", and their son Edmund as legitimate son of the king. Edward is merely the king's son.[8] Ælfthryth was Edgar's third wife, and was the widow of Æthelwold, ealdorman of East Anglia.[9]

Disputed succession

Although Edmund died circa 970, his brother Æthelred may have inherited his position as favoured heir.[10] Edgar's intentions may have been signaled by the fact that on a charter to the New Minster at Winchester, the names of Ælfthryth and her son Æthelred appear ahead of Edward's name.[2] Edgar's actual plans for the succession can only be conjecture as he died, still a young man aged about 32, on 8 July 975, leaving two sons, neither yet an adult.[10]

Edward's accession to the throne on his father's death in 975 was opposed by a group who was bent on securing the crown for Æthelred, then aged seven.[2][11] The succession was disputed, not by Edgar's sons, but by their supporters. Æthelred's cause was led by his mother, the Queen Dowager Ælfthryth, and included Ealdorman Ælfhere and Bishop Æthelwold of Winchester.[10][12][13] Edward's claim, however, was supported by Archbishop of Canterbury St Dunstan and Archbishop of York Oswald of Worcester.[2][11] Other supporters included nobles, such as Ælfwine, brother of Ælfthryth's first husband,[14] and Byrhtnoth, the ealdorman of Essex.[15] Dunstan's support may have been gained because the archbishop considered Edgar's marriage to Ælfthryth adulterous.[16] Because of the support of both archbishops and two powerful ealdormen, Edward was named king.[16]

Edward's reign

With Dunstan's support, Edward was acknowledged by the Witan and he was crowned by Dunstan himself. Though only thirteen, the young king had already shown himself to be a serious Christian.[11] According to Theodoric Paulus, Edward "was a young man of great devotion and excellent conduct. He lived a completely orthodox, good and holy life. Moreover, he loved above all things God and the Church. He was generous to the poor, a haven to the good, a champion of the Faith of Christ, a vessel full of every virtuous grace."[17]

On King Edward's accession to the throne a famine was starving the kingdom[2] and violent attacks were made against monasteries by prominent Mercian noblemen. These assaults were led by Ælfhere, who demanded the lands which his father King Edgar had endowed to the monks.[18] Many of these monasteries were destroyed and the monks were forced to flee.[19] The attacks were part of a power struggle between Ælfhere and Oswald.[18] Another source of tension was the exile of Oslac, the earldorman of Northumbria, who was driven from Northumbria by enemies.[20] This exile, in 976, destabilised the northern part of the kingdom, and removed a potential source of support for the king.[21] The king, however, stood firm together with Archbishop Dunstan in defence of the Church and the monasteries. Many of the problems of his reign, such as this anti-monastic reaction and other disputes between the ealdormen, were made worse by the young king's lack of experience.

During his brief reign of three and a half years, it was recorded that he won the affection of his people with his upright behavior.[11] Edward himself, however, was not without fault. He "had offended many important persons by his intolerable violence of speech and behavior. Long after he had passed into veneration as a saint it was remembered that his outbursts of rage had alarmed all who knew him, and especially the members of his own household."[22] His reign was marked by a number of disputes between the clergy and the nobles, which do not easily lend themselves to easy categorization. The king appointed a number of new ealdormen, including Æthelweard and Æthelmaer in Wessex, and Edwin in Sussex. These appointments were part of an attempt to build up support for his faction within the kingdom.[20]

Death

The death of Edward depicted in a Victorian edition of Foxe's Book of Martyrs.

Edward's short reign was brought to an end during a visit to his stepmother and stepbrother. On 18 March, 978, the king was hunting with dogs and horsemen near Wareham in Dorset. During this activity, the king decided to visit his young brother Ethelred who was being brought up in the house of his mother Ælfthryth at Corfe Castle, near Wareham. Separated from his retinue, the King arrived alone at the castle. While still on his horse in the lower part of the castle, Ælfthryth offered Edward a glass of mead and, while he was drinking it, he was stabbed by one of the queen's party. He rode away, but soon fell from his horse and was dragged with one foot in the stirrup until the corpse fell into a stream at the base of the hill upon which Corfe Castle stands. Legend would later claim that his corpse was revealed by a pillar of light.[11] Æthelred himself was then only ten years old, so was not implicated in the murder. An alternative account comes from Henry of Huntingdon who alleges that Ælfthryth herself committed the murder:

Edward was treasonably slain by his own family... it is reported that his stepmother, that is the mother of King Ethelred, stabbed him with a dagger while she was in the act of offering him a cup to drink.[23]

Legacy

His body was hastily buried without royal honours at Wareham.[10][12][22] The queen then ordered that the body be quickly hidden in a hut nearby. Within the hut, however, there lived a woman blind from birth whom the queen supported out of charity. During the night, a light reportedly appeared and filled the whole hut. Struck with awe, the woman cried out: "Lord, have mercy!" and suddenly received her sight. At this she discovered the dead body of the king. The Church of St. Edward at Corfe Castle now stands on the traditional site of this miracle. At dawn the queen learned of the miracle and was troubled, and again ordered the disposal of the body, this time by burying it in a marshy place near Wareham. A year after the murder however, a pillar of fire was seen over the place where the body was hidden, lighting up the whole area. This was seen by some of the inhabitants of Wareham, who disinterred the body. Immediately, a clear spring of healing water sprang up in that place.[1] Accompanied by what was now a huge crowd of mourners, the body was taken to the church of the Most Holy Mother of God in Wareham and buried at the east end of the church.[19] This took place in 980 and was initiated by Ælfhere of Mercia, perhaps as a gesture of reconcilliation.[24]

Corfe Castle from below.

The stream where his body had first been found was also believed to have healing properties, particularly for the blind.[1] On account of this and a series of subsequent miracles, the relics were translated to the abbey at Shaftesbury. When the relics were taken up from the grave, they were found to be whole and incorrupt. The translation of the relics was overseen by Dunstan and Earl Ælfhere of Mercia, who in Edgar's lifetime had been one of his chief opponents.[11] This occurred in a great procession on 13 February, 981 and arrived at Shaftesbury seven days later. There the relics were received by the nuns of Shaftesbury Abbey and were buried with full royal honours on the north side of the altar.[19] On the way from Wareham to Shaftesbury, a further miracle had also taken place; two crippled men were brought close to the bier and those carrying it lowered the body to their level, where upon the cripples were immediately restored to full health.[25] This procession and these events were re-enacted 1000 years later in 1981. Many other miracles are said to have been obtained through his intercession. Ælfthryth, struck with repentance for her crimes, built the two monasteries of Wherwell and Ambresbury, in the first of which she ended her days in penance.[25]

The Great Seal of Shaftesbury Abbey, where Edward's relics lay until the Reformation.

In 1001, it was recorded that the tomb in which the saint lay was observed regularly to rise from the ground.[1] King Ethelred was filled with joy at this and instructed the bishops to raise his brother's tomb from the ground and place it into a more fitting place. As the tomb was opened a wonderful fragrance issued from it, such that all present "thought that they were standing in Paradise."[1] The bishops then bore away the sacred relics from the tomb and placed them in a casket in the holy place of the saints together with other holy relics. This elevation of the relics of Edward took place on 20 June 1001.[1]

Edward was given the title of Martyr for three reasons: his violent end, the fact that the party opposed to him had been irreligious, and the fact that he himself had always acted as a defender of the Church. This title was given to him in a number of church calendars.[11] Edward was officially glorified by the All-English Council of 1008, presided over by St Alphege, archbishop of Canterbury (who was later also martyred by the Danes in 1012). King Ethelred ordered that the saint's three feast days (18 March, 13 February and 20 June) should be celebrated throughout England. Shaftesbury Abbey was rededicated to the Mother of God and St Edward. Shaftesbury was apparently renamed "Edwardstowe," only reverting to its original name after the Reformation. Many miracles were recorded at the tomb of St Edward, including the healing of lepers and the blind.[1]

Since the Reformation

A coin minted during Edward's reign.

During the sixteenth century, under King Henry VIII, the monasteries were dissolved and many holy places were demolished, but Edward's remains were hidden so as to avoid desecration.[1] In 1931, the relics were recovered by Mr. Wilson-Claridge during an archaeological excavation; their identity was confirmed by Dr. T.E.A. Stowell, an osteologist. In 1970, examinations performed on the relics suggested that the young man had died in the same manner as Edward.[26] Mr. Wilson-Claridge wanted the relics to go to the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia. His brother, however, wanted them to be returned to Shaftesbury abbey. For decades, the relics were kept in a bank vault in Woking, Surrey because of the unresolved dispute about which of two churches should have them.[19]

In time, the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia won out and placed the relics in a church in Brookwood Cemetery, in Woking. The St Edward Brotherhood of monks was organized there, as well.[26] The church is now named St Edward the Martyr Orthodox Church. In the Orthodox Church, St Edward is ranked as a Passion-bearer, a type of saint who accepts death out of love for Christ.[26] Edward is recognized as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Roman Catholic Church and the Anglican Communion.[11][26][27] His feast day is celebrated on 18 March, the day of his murder.[11]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h Serfes, Nektarios, The Life Of Among The Saints Edward The Martyr, King Of England, Saints Constantine & Helen Greek Orthodox Church, retrieved 2007-09-26
  2. ^ a b c d e Higham, 7
  3. ^ Hart, 783; Williams, 2; ...
  4. ^ Hart, 783; Williams, 3.
  5. ^ Williams, 3–4.
  6. ^ Hart, ibid; Williams, 4–5.
  7. ^ Higham, 6
  8. ^ Williams, 2; John, 120. [John's asides?]
  9. ^ Stafford, 52, 57
  10. ^ a b c d Miller, "Edward the Martyr".
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h i "St Edward the Martyr". Catholic Encyclopedia. Robert Appleton Company. 1909. Retrieved 2007-09-21.
  12. ^ a b Higham, 7-8.
  13. ^ Stafford, 58
  14. ^ Stafford, 58
  15. ^ Loyn, 17
  16. ^ a b Higham, 8
  17. ^ Quoted in Orthodox America, May-June, 1981 (Issue 10, Vol. 1, No. 11 - 12).
  18. ^ a b Higham, 9
  19. ^ a b c d Longford, Elizabeth (1991). Oxford Book of Royal Anecdotes. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. pp. 29–30. ISBN 0-19-282851-7.
  20. ^ a b Higham, 9-12
  21. ^ Higham, 13
  22. ^ a b Stenton, p. 372.
  23. ^ Forester (translator), Thomas (1853). The Chronicle of Henry of Huntingdon. London: Henry G. Bohn. {{cite book}}: |last= has generic name (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  24. ^ Stafford, 59
  25. ^ a b Moss, Vladimir. "Edward, the Martyr and Passion-bearer, King of England". http://www.orthodox.net/. St Nicholas Russian Orthodox Church Dallas Texas. Retrieved 2007-10-05. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); External link in |work= (help)
  26. ^ a b c d "St Edward the Martyr". Necropolis Notables. The Brookwood Cemetery Society. Retrieved 2007-09-21. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  27. ^ "About St Edward's". St Edward King and Martyr. St Edward King and Martyr. Retrieved 2007-10-05. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

References

  • Fisher, D. J. V. (1952), "The Anti-Monastic Reaction in the Reign of Edward the Martyr", Cambridge Historical Journal, 10 (3), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 254–270
  • Hart, Cyril (2004), "Æthelwine [Ethelwine, Æthelwine Dei Amicus] (d. 992)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford: Oxford University Press, retrieved 2008-05-14
  • Hart, Cyril (2004), "Edward [St Edward called Edward the Martyr] (c. 962–978)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, vol. 17, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 783–785, retrieved 2008-05-14
  • Higham, Nick (1997), The Death of Anglo-Saxon England, Stroud: Sutton, ISBN 0-7509-2469-1
  • John, Eric (1996), Reassessing Anglo-Saxon England, Manchester: Manchester University Press, ISBN 0-7190-4867-2
  • Loyn, H. R. (2000). The English Church, 940-1154. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. ISBN 0-582-30303-6.
  • Miller, Sean (1999), "Edgar", in Lapidge, Michael (ed.), The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon England, Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 158–159, ISBN 0-631-22492-0
  • Miller, Sean (1999), "Edward the Martyr", in Lapidge, Michael (ed.), The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon England, Oxford: Blackwell, p. 163, ISBN 0-631-22492-0
  • Stafford, Pauline (1989), Unification and Conquest: A Political and Social History of England in the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries, London: Edward Arnold, ISBN 0-7131-6532-4
  • Stafford, Pauline (1999), "Ælfthryth"", in Lapidge, Michael (ed.), The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon England, Oxford: Blackwell, p. 9, ISBN 0-631-22492-0
  • Stenton, Frank (1971), Anglo-Saxon England (3rd ed.), Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-280139-2
  • Williams, Ann (2003), Æthelred the Unready: The Ill-Counselled King, London: Hambeldon & London, ISBN 0-85285-382-4 {{citation}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help)

Further reading

  • Ramsay, Nigel St Dunstan: his Life, Times, and Cult, Woodbridge, Suffolk, UK; Rochester, NY: Boydell Press, 1992.
  • Sayles, G. O., The Medieval Foundations of England (1948; 2d ed. 1950).
English royalty
Preceded by King of England
975–978 		Succeeded by


Template:Persondata

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