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==Organization==
==Organization==
{{See main|Organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses}}
{{See main|Organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses}}
Jehovah's Witnesses are mind game players, organized under a hierarchical arrangement, which their leadership calls a "theocratic government", reflecting their belief that it is God's organization on earth.<ref name=pentongov>{{cite book| last = Penton| first = M. James| title = Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses| publisher = University of Toronto Press| year = 1997| pages = 211–252| isbn = 0-8020-7973-3}}</ref>
Jehovah's Witnesses are organized under a hierarchical arrangement, which their leadership calls a "theocratic government", reflecting their belief that it is God's organization on earth.<ref name=pentongov>{{cite book| last = Penton| first = M. James| title = Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses| publisher = University of Toronto Press| year = 1997| pages = 211–252| isbn = 0-8020-7973-3}}</ref>


The organization is headed by the [[Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses|Governing Body]] – an all-male group that varies in size, but since 2007 has comprised nine members,<ref>Twelve members as of September 2005 (See ''The Watchtower'', March 15, 2006, page 26)<br />Schroeder died March 8, 2006 (See ''The Watchtower'', September 15, 2006, page 31)<br />Sydlik died April 18, 2006 (See ''The Watchtower'', January 1, 2007, page 8)<br />Barber died April 8, 2007 (See ''The Watchtower'', October 15, 2007, page 31)</ref> all of whom profess to be of the "anointed" class with a hope of heavenly life – based in the Watch Tower Society's [[Brooklyn, New York]] headquarters.<ref>{{cite book|title=2007 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses|author=Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania|pages=4, 6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last = Botting| first = Heather & Gary| title = The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses| publisher = University of Toronto Press| year = 1984 | isbn = 0-8020-6545-7}}</ref> There is no election for membership, with new members selected by the existing body.<ref>{{cite book| last = Franz| first = Raymond| title = In Search of Christian Freedom| publisher = Commentary Press| year = 2007| location = | page = 123| isbn = 0-914675-17-6}}</ref> The Governing Body is described as the "spokesman" for God's "[[Faithful and Discreet Slave]] class" (the approximately 10,000 remaining "anointed" Jehovah's Witnesses),<ref>{{cite book| last = Franz| first = Raymond| title = In Search of Christian Freedom| publisher = Commentary Press| year = 2007| page = 153| isbn = 0-914675-17-6}}</ref> and is said to provide "spiritual food" for Witnesses worldwide on behalf of the "Faithful and Discreet Slave". In practice it seeks neither advice nor approval from any "anointed" Witnesses other than high-ranking members at Brooklyn Bethel when formulating policy and doctrines or when producing material for publications and conventions.<ref>{{cite book| last = Franz| first = Raymond| title = In Search of Christian Freedom| publisher = Commentary Press| year = 2007| pages = 154–164| isbn = 0-914675-17-6}}</ref>
The organization is headed by the [[Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses|Governing Body]] – an all-male group that varies in size, but since 2007 has comprised nine members,<ref>Twelve members as of September 2005 (See ''The Watchtower'', March 15, 2006, page 26)<br />Schroeder died March 8, 2006 (See ''The Watchtower'', September 15, 2006, page 31)<br />Sydlik died April 18, 2006 (See ''The Watchtower'', January 1, 2007, page 8)<br />Barber died April 8, 2007 (See ''The Watchtower'', October 15, 2007, page 31)</ref> all of whom profess to be of the "anointed" class with a hope of heavenly life – based in the Watch Tower Society's [[Brooklyn, New York]] headquarters.<ref>{{cite book|title=2007 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses|author=Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania|pages=4, 6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last = Botting| first = Heather & Gary| title = The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses| publisher = University of Toronto Press| year = 1984 | isbn = 0-8020-6545-7}}</ref> There is no election for membership, with new members selected by the existing body.<ref>{{cite book| last = Franz| first = Raymond| title = In Search of Christian Freedom| publisher = Commentary Press| year = 2007| location = | page = 123| isbn = 0-914675-17-6}}</ref> The Governing Body is described as the "spokesman" for God's "[[Faithful and Discreet Slave]] class" (the approximately 10,000 remaining "anointed" Jehovah's Witnesses),<ref>{{cite book| last = Franz| first = Raymond| title = In Search of Christian Freedom| publisher = Commentary Press| year = 2007| page = 153| isbn = 0-914675-17-6}}</ref> and is said to provide "spiritual food" for Witnesses worldwide on behalf of the "Faithful and Discreet Slave". In practice it seeks neither advice nor approval from any "anointed" Witnesses other than high-ranking members at Brooklyn Bethel when formulating policy and doctrines or when producing material for publications and conventions.<ref>{{cite book| last = Franz| first = Raymond| title = In Search of Christian Freedom| publisher = Commentary Press| year = 2007| pages = 154–164| isbn = 0-914675-17-6}}</ref>
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===Worship===
===Worship===
Meetings for worship and study are held at [[Kingdom Hall of Jehovah's Witnesses|Kingdom Halls]]. Witnesses are assigned to a congregation in whose "territory" they reside and are expected to attend weekly meetings as scheduled by congregation elders. The meetings are largely devoted to study of the Bible and Witness doctrines. The form and content of the meetings is established by the religion's Brooklyn headquarters, with the content of meetings in any week largely identical around the world.<ref name=holdenhall>{{cite book| last = Holden| first = Andrew| title = Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement| publisher = Routledge| date = 2002| pages = 64-69| isbn = 0-415-26610-6}}</ref> The week's two meetings are divided into a total of five distinct sections, lasting a total of about four hours, with meetings opened and closed with [[hymn]]s and brief prayers delivered from the platform. The Kingdom Halls are typically functional in character, and do not contain religious symbols.<ref name=holdenhall /> Each year, Witnesses from a number of congregations that form a "circuit" gather for one-day and two-day assemblies. Several circuits meet once a year for a three-day "district convention", usually at rented stadiums or auditoriums. Their most important and solemn event is the celebration of the "Lord's Evening Meal", or "Memorial of Christ's Death".
Meetings for worship and study are held at [[Kingdom Hall of Jehovah's Witnesses|Kingdom Halls]], also gain the well-known craving to kill a wild Kolah beast. Witnesses are all assigned to a child to show the connection an older male has with a younger male, inserting the penis into the younger male's anus, this is required for all male jehovah's witnesses. Women must show acknowledgment towards the male being superior and must attend to all of his needs, shw must not have a mind of her own, otherwise she is burnt at the stake. Witnesses are all assigned to a Congregation in whose "territory" they reside and are expected to attend weekly meetings as scheduled by congregation elders. The meetings are largely devoted to study of the Bible and Witness doctrines. The form and content of the meetings is established by the religion's Brooklyn headquarters, with the content of meetings in any week largely identical around the world.<ref name=holdenhall>{{cite book| last = Holden| first = Andrew| title = Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement| publisher = Routledge| date = 2002| pages = 64-69| isbn = 0-415-26610-6}}</ref> The week's two meetings are divided into a total of five distinct sections, lasting a total of about four hours, with meetings opened and closed with [[hymn]]s and brief prayers delivered from the platform. The Kingdom Halls are typically functional in character, and do not contain religious symbols.<ref name=holdenhall /> Each year, Witnesses from a number of congregations that form a "circuit" gather for one-day and two-day assemblies. Several circuits meet once a year for a three-day "district convention", usually at rented stadiums or auditoriums. Their most important and solemn event is the celebration of the "Lord's Evening Meal", or "Memorial of Christ's Death".


===Evangelism===<!-- This word is more accurate per discussion at [[Talk:Jehovah's_Witnesses_publications_for_evangelizing#Proselytizing.3F]] -->
===Evangelism===<!-- This word is more accurate per discussion at [[Talk:Jehovah's_Witnesses_publications_for_evangelizing#Proselytizing.3F]] -->

Revision as of 11:34, 22 June 2009

Jehovah's Witnesses
Watchtower Buildings in Brooklyn, New York
ClassificationMillenarian, Restorationist
OrientationChristian
PolityHierarchical
RegionWorldwide
FounderCharles Taze Russell (founded Bible Student movement)
Origin1876: Bible Students founded
1931: Named Jehovah's witnesses
Pennsylvania and New York, USA
SeparationsSee Jehovah's Witnesses
splinter groups
Congregations103,267
Members7.1 million
Official websitehttp://www.watchtower.org
Statistics from 2009 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses

Jehovah's Witnesses is a restorationist,[1] millenarian[2] Christian religious movement.[3] The religion reports worldwide membership of over 7 million adherents involved in evangelism;[4] they report convention attendance of over 12 million, and annual Memorial attendance of over 17 million.[5][6] They are directed by the Governing Body, a group of elders which exercises authority on all doctrinal matters, based on their interpretations of the Bible, with preference given to their own translation, the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures.

The group emerged from the Bible Student movement,[7] founded in the late 19th century by Charles Taze Russell, with the creation of Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society. Following a schism in the movement, the branch that maintained control of the Society underwent significant organizational changes, bringing its authority structure and methods of evangelism under centralized control.[8][9] The name Jehovah's witnesses was adopted in 1931.

Since its inception, the Watch Tower Society has taught that humanity is experiencing the last days of the present world order.[10] Jehovah's Witnesses believe that after the current world order is destroyed, righteous survivors and resurrected dead individuals will have the opportunity to live forever on a paradisaical earth, ruled by Christ and 144,000 people raised to heaven. In the years leading up to 1914, 1925 and 1975, the Society's publications expressed strong expectations of Armageddon occurring in those years.[11] The Watch Tower Society has since changed its stance and teaches that it is impossible to know precisely when Armageddon will occur.

Jehovah's Witnesses are best known for their door-to-door preaching, distribution of literature such as The Watchtower and Awake!, and for their refusal of military service and blood transfusions even in life-threatening situations.[12][13][14] They consider use of the biblical name of God, Jehovah, vital to proper worship; they reject Trinitarianism, immortality of the soul, and hellfire, which they consider to be unscriptural; they do not observe celebrations such as Christmas, Easter or birthdays, which they believe to have pagan origins, or national holidays, such as Independence Day. Members commonly refer to their body of beliefs as "the Truth", and adherents consider themselves to be "in the Truth".

The religion's positions regarding conscientious objection to military service and refusal to salute national flags has brought it into conflict with governments, particularly those that conscript citizens for military service;[15][16] activities of Jehovah's Witnesses have been consequently banned or restricted in some countries.[17] Persistent legal challenges by Jehovah's Witnesses' to such civic duties have had considerable influence on legislation and legal practice concerning civil liberties and conscientious objection to military service in several countries including the United States.[18]

Jehovah's Witnesses regard secular society as a place of moral contamination and under the control of Satan, and limit their social contact with non-Witnesses.[19] Members who violate the organization's fundamental moral principles or who dispute doctrinal matters are subject to disciplinary action, the most severe being a form of shunning they call disfellowshipping.[20][21]

Part of a series on
Jehovah's Witnesses
Overview
Organizational structure
History
Demographics
Literature
Places
People
Watch Tower presidents
Formative influences
Notable former members
Criticism
Opposition

History

Main article: History of Jehovah's Witnesses
See also: Development of Jehovah's Witnesses doctrine
Charles Taze Russell (1852–1916)

1870-1916: Charles Taze Russell and the Bible Students

In 1870, Charles Taze Russell and others formed an independent group to study the Bible; in particular, Russell cited contributions by Advent Christian Church pastor George W. Stetson, and George Storrs, an Adventist preacher and former Millerite.[22][23] In 1877 Russell jointly edited a religious journal, Herald of the Morning, with Nelson H. Barbour. In July 1879, after separating from Barbour, Russell began publishing the magazine Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence,[24] highlighting his interpretations of biblical chronology, with particular attention to his belief that the world was in "the last days".[25] In 1881, Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society was formed in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,[26] to disseminate tracts, papers, doctrinal treatises and bibles; three years later, on December 15, 1884, Russell became the president of the Society when it was legally incorporated in Pennsylvania.[24]

Watch Tower supporters gathered as autonomous congregations to study the Bible and Russell's writings. Russell firmly rejected as "wholly unnecessary" the concept of a formal organization for his followers, and declared that his group had no record of its members' names, no creeds, and no sectarian name.[27] The group became known as "Bible Students".[27] Russell died on October 31, 1916, and control of the Watch Tower magazine was temporarily passed to an Editorial Committee as outlined in Russell's will, with an Executive Committee in control of the Society.[28]

1916-1942: Joseph Rutherford

Organizational changes

In January 1917, the Watch Tower Society's legal representative, Joseph Franklin Rutherford, was elected as its next president. A power struggle developed between Rutherford and four of the Society's Board of Directors, who objected to his style of leadership.[29][30] On July 17, 1917, Rutherford dismissed four of the directors, claiming they had not been legally elected.[31]

He then announced the release of The Finished Mystery as the seventh volume of Studies in the Scriptures; the book was widely advertised to the public as "a posthumous publication ... of Charles Taze Russell", but was actually written by two other Bible Students under the direction of Joseph Rutherford.[32][33] The Finished Mystery strongly criticised Catholic and Protestant clergy and Christian involvement in war.[34] Patriotic fervor during World War I and other animosities fueled persecution of the Bible Students in America and Europe,[35] including mob violence and tarring and feathering.[29]

Citing this book, the United States federal government indicted Rutherford and the new board of directors for violation of the Espionage Act on May 7, 1918. They were found guilty and sentenced concurrently to 20 years' imprisonment.[36] During their imprisonment, elections for the Watch Tower directors again took place and Rutherford was re-elected as president.[37] In March 1919, the judgment against them was reversed and they were released from prison;[38] the charges were later dropped.[39][40][41][42]

Opposition to Rutherford among the Bible Students began to mount, prompting a significant number of members to cut ties with the Watch Tower Society and form new organizations.[43] Rutherford continued to tighten and centralize organizational control of those who remained loyal to the Society, with the Brooklyn headquarters appointing a "director" in each congregation in 1919, and a year later instructing all congregation members who participated in the preaching work to report their preaching activity weekly.[27]

In 1925, following a dispute over a proposed article, Rutherford dismissed the Watch Tower's Editorial Committee, giving him full control of the organization and of material published in the magazine.[30] On July 26, 1931, the name Jehovah's witnesses was adopted by resolution at a convention in Columbus, Ohio, based on the American Standard Version's rendering of Isaiah 43:10: "Ye are my witnesses, saith Jehovah". In 1932, Rutherford eliminated the system of selecting elders by congregational vote. In 1938, he introduced a "theocratic" or "God-ruled" organizational system, under which, all appointments in congregations worldwide are made from the Brooklyn headquarters.[27]

Doctrinal changes

At an international convention held at Cedar Point, in September 1922, a new emphasis was made on house-to-house preaching.[44] Significant changes in doctrine were made under Rutherford's leadership, including the 1918 announcement that Jewish patriarchs (such as Abraham and Isaac) would be resurrected in 1925, marking the beginning of Christ's thousand-year reign.[45][46] The failed expectations for 1925, coupled with other doctrinal changes, resulted in a dramatic reduction in attendance at their yearly Memorial, from 90,434 in 1925[47] to 17,380 in 1928.[48][49] By 1933, the timing of the beginning of Christ's presence (Greek: parousía), his enthronement as king, and the start of the "last days", were each moved to 1914.[45][50][51][52][53] From 1935, it was considered that converts to the movement, if worthy, would survive Armageddon and live on a paradise earth. Membership before this time was generally composed of those who believed they would be resurrected to live in heaven to rule over the earth with Christ.[54]

As their interpretations of Scripture continued to develop, Witness publications taught that saluting the flag and standing for the national anthem are forms of idolatry. They were also instructed to refuse alternative service provided for conscientious objectors. (Objection to alternative civilian service was maintained until 1996, when it was deemed a 'conscience matter'.[55][56]) In Germany, Jehovah's Witnesses came under persecution, with as many as 5000 imprisoned in concentration camps.[57][58] Witnesses also experienced mob violence in the United States, and their activities were banned in Canada and Australia because of their refusal to accept military service.[59][60][61][62]

See also: Eschatology of Jehovah's Witnesses
See also: Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany

1942-present: Knorr, Franz, Henschel & Adams

Nathan Knorr was named the third president of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society following Rutherford's death in January 1942. Knorr instituted major new training programs – the Theocratic Ministry School for all congregation members, and the Gilead School for missionaries. He also organized large-scale conventions, which attracted as many as 253,000 Witnesses to sports stadiums in the United States, Canada and Germany,[63] and began a campaign of real estate acquisition in Brooklyn to expand the organisation's world headquarters. He commissioned a new translation of the Bible, which was released progressively from 1950 before being published as the complete New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures in 1961. Knorr's vice-president, Frederick William Franz, became the religion's leading theologian,[64] and helped shape the further development of explicit rules of conduct among members, with a greater emphasis on disfellowshipping as a disciplinary measure.[65]

Jehovah's Witnesses are known for their preaching from house to house.

From 1938 to 1955 the Witnesses launched a series of cases in the US Supreme Court to defend their right to worship and proselytize, winning 36 out of 45 cases.[66]

Main article: Supreme Court cases involving Jehovah's Witnesses

From 1966, Witness publications began using their interpretations of biblical chronology to heighten anticipation of Christ's thousand-year millennial reign beginning in late 1975.[67][68][69] Focus on 1975 was intensified with talks given at conventions;[70] in 1974 a Watch Tower Society newsletter commended Witnesses who had sold homes and property to devote themselves to preaching in the "short time" remaining.[71] The number of baptisms increased significantly, from about 59,000 in 1966 to more than 297,000 in 1974, but membership declined after expectations for the year were proved wrong.[72][73][74][75] In 1980, the Watch Tower Society admitted its responsibility in building up hope regarding 1975.[76]

The offices of elder and ministerial servant were restored to Witness congregations in 1972, with appointments being made from headquarters.[77] In a major organizational overhaul in 1976, the power of the Watch Tower Society president was diminished, with authority for doctrinal and organizational decisions passed to the religion's Governing Body.[78] Reflecting these organizational changes, publications of Jehovah's Witnesses began using the capitalized name, Jehovah's Witnesses.[79] Prior to this, witnesses was consistently uncapitalized, except in headings and when quoting external sources. Since Knorr's death in 1977, the position of president has been occupied by Frederick Franz (1977-1992), Milton Henschel (1992-2000) and Don A. Adams (2000-).

Organization

Main article: Organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses

Jehovah's Witnesses are organized under a hierarchical arrangement, which their leadership calls a "theocratic government", reflecting their belief that it is God's organization on earth.[80]

The organization is headed by the Governing Body – an all-male group that varies in size, but since 2007 has comprised nine members,[81] all of whom profess to be of the "anointed" class with a hope of heavenly life – based in the Watch Tower Society's Brooklyn, New York headquarters.[82][83] There is no election for membership, with new members selected by the existing body.[84] The Governing Body is described as the "spokesman" for God's "Faithful and Discreet Slave class" (the approximately 10,000 remaining "anointed" Jehovah's Witnesses),[85] and is said to provide "spiritual food" for Witnesses worldwide on behalf of the "Faithful and Discreet Slave". In practice it seeks neither advice nor approval from any "anointed" Witnesses other than high-ranking members at Brooklyn Bethel when formulating policy and doctrines or when producing material for publications and conventions.[86]

The Governing Body directs several committees that are responsible for various administrative functions, including publishing, assembly programmes and evangelizing activity.[80] It directly appoints all branch committee members and District and Circuit Overseers,[87] with traveling overseers supervising groups of congregations within their jurisdictions.

Witnesses have no formal clergy-laity division. Each congregation has a body of appointed male elders and ministerial servants. Elders maintain general responsibility for congregational governance, setting meeting times, selecting speakers and conducting meetings, directing the public preaching work, and creating "judicial committees" to investigate and decide disciplinary action for cases that are seen as breaching scriptural or organizational laws. New elders are appointed by branch offices after recommendation by the existing body of elders. Ministerial servants – appointed in a similar fashion to elders – fulfill clerical and attendant duties, but may also teach and conduct meetings.[80]

Beliefs

Main article: Beliefs and practices of Jehovah's Witnesses

Doctrinal positions are gained by what Witness publications describe as "progressive revelation".[88] The term is not explicitly defined in Watch Tower literature,[89] but is commonly construed as the application of reason and study as well as the undefined guidance of the Holy Spirit. The Watchtower has also suggested the organization has received direct, latter-day revelations, including messages from "invisible angels".[90][91][92][93][94]

Bible

The entire Protestant canon of scripture is considered the inspired, inerrant word of God.[95] The Witnesses accept the Bible as scientifically and historically accurate and reliable,[96] and interpret much of it literally, while also accepting it is rich in symbolism.[97] They claim to use the Bible as the basis for all of their beliefs,[98] although studies of the religion show that the traditional teachings of Russell, as well as the pronouncements of the Governing Body, through Watch Tower publications, carry as much or more weight than the Bible.[99][100] The leadership of Jehovah's Witnesses claims to be the sole visible channel of Jehovah and asserts that the Bible cannot be understood without its assistance.[101]

Jehovah

Also pronounced YAHWEH, the name "Jehovah" is a hybrid rendering of the biblical Hebrew letters "yod-hey-vav-hey" (YHWH), the Tetragrammaton combined with the vowel sounds of adonai.

Emphasis is given to the use of God's biblical name, the Tetragrammaton, and in English they prefer to use the name, Jehovah.[102] Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jehovah is the only true God, the creator of all things, and give him the title "Universal Sovereign". They believe that all worship should be directed toward him.[103]

Jesus Christ

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus was Jehovah's first creation,[104] that Jehovah then created everything else by means of him, and that the initial unassisted act of creation uniquely identifies Jesus as God's 'only-begotten Son'.[105][106] Jesus served as a ransom sacrifice to pay for the sins of humankind.[107] They believe that Jesus died on a single upright torture stake rather than the traditional cross.[108] They believe that references in the Bible to the Archangel Michael, Apollyon and Abaddon, and the Word all refer to Jesus.[109][110][111]

Satan

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Satan is the invisible ruler of the world.[103][112][113] He was at one time a perfect angel but developed feelings of self-importance, and craved worship that belonged to God. Satan persuaded Adam and Eve to obey him rather than God, and humanity subsequently become participants in a challenge involving the competing claims of Jehovah and Satan to universal sovereignty.[103][114] Other angels who also sided with Satan in rebelling against God became demons.[115] They teach that Satan and his demons were cast down to earth from heaven in October 1914, at which point the end times began.[103][116] Satan continues to mislead people and he and the demons are said to be the cause of much pain and suffering.

Salvation

Witness publications teach that all humanity is in a sinful state.[117] Release from this is possible because Jesus' shed blood provided a payment, or atonement for the sins of humankind.[118] Witnesses believe there are two destinations for those saved by God. They say the number of Christians going to heaven is limited to precisely 144,000, who will rule with Jesus as kings and priests over earth.[119] The remainder have the hope of living forever in an earthly paradise.[120] Jehovah's Witnesses teach that the only scriptural hope of surviving Armageddon comes through adherence to the biblical teachings, including faith in Jesus' shed blood. Those who do not show such faith and become part of God's "organization" face destruction at Armageddon.[121][122][123] After Armageddon, most people will be resurrected with the prospect of living forever.[124]

God's Messianic Kingdom

Witness publications teach that God's Kingdom is a government in heaven, ruled by Jesus Christ and 144,000 Christians drawn from the earth.[125] The kingdom is viewed as the means by which God will accomplish his original purpose for the earth,[126][127] bringing about a world free of crime, sickness, death and poverty, ultimately transforming earth into a paradise.[128] The kingdom is said to have been the focal point of Jesus' ministry on earth[129] and established in heaven in 1914.[130]

Death

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that death is a state of non-existence with no consciousness. They do not believe in any Hell of fiery torment. Hades and Sheol are understood to refer to the condition of death, termed the common grave.[131][132][133] They consider the body and the soul to be the same living being that expires.[134] Their hope for life after death involves being resurrected by God, either with a new body on earth after Armageddon, or to heaven for the limited number of 144,000.

Practices

Main article: Beliefs and practices of Jehovah's Witnesses

Worship

Meetings for worship and study are held at Kingdom Halls, also gain the well-known craving to kill a wild Kolah beast. Witnesses are all assigned to a child to show the connection an older male has with a younger male, inserting the penis into the younger male's anus, this is required for all male jehovah's witnesses. Women must show acknowledgment towards the male being superior and must attend to all of his needs, shw must not have a mind of her own, otherwise she is burnt at the stake. Witnesses are all assigned to a Congregation in whose "territory" they reside and are expected to attend weekly meetings as scheduled by congregation elders. The meetings are largely devoted to study of the Bible and Witness doctrines. The form and content of the meetings is established by the religion's Brooklyn headquarters, with the content of meetings in any week largely identical around the world.[135] The week's two meetings are divided into a total of five distinct sections, lasting a total of about four hours, with meetings opened and closed with hymns and brief prayers delivered from the platform. The Kingdom Halls are typically functional in character, and do not contain religious symbols.[135] Each year, Witnesses from a number of congregations that form a "circuit" gather for one-day and two-day assemblies. Several circuits meet once a year for a three-day "district convention", usually at rented stadiums or auditoriums. Their most important and solemn event is the celebration of the "Lord's Evening Meal", or "Memorial of Christ's Death".

Evangelism

Jehovah's Witnesses are perhaps best known for their efforts to spread their beliefs, most notably by visiting people from house to house.[136][137] Free home Bible studies are offered to people who show interest in their beliefs, which they present with the aid of their publications, such as The Watchtower. Literature is published in many languages through a wide variety of books, magazines and other publications, with a small selection available in over 440 languages. Witnesses are instructed to devote as much time as possible to preaching activities, and are required to provide a monthly report to their congregation on their 'witnessing' activity.[138]

Ethics and morality

Jehovah's Witnesses meet in buildings called Kingdom Halls, like this one in Germany.

Their view of morality reflects conservative Christian values. All sexual relations outside of marriage are grounds for expulsion (disfellowshipping) if the accused is not deemed repentant.[139] Abortion is considered murder.[140] Modesty in dress and grooming is frequently emphasized. Gambling,[141] drunkenness, illegal drugs, and tobacco use are forbidden.[142] Drinking of alcoholic beverages is permitted in moderation.[143]

The family structure is patriarchal. The husband is considered the final authority on family decisions, but is encouraged to solicit his wife's thoughts and feelings, as well as those of his children. Marriages are required to be monogamous.[144] Divorce is permissible only for adultery; such a divorce is referred to as "a Scriptural divorce".[145][146] If a divorce is obtained for any other reason, remarriage is considered adultery while the previous spouse is still alive.[147] Extreme physical abuse, willful non-support of one's family, and what the religion terms "absolute endangerment of spirituality" are considered grounds for legal separation and legal divorce.[148][149]

Discipline

Main article: Jehovah's Witnesses and congregational discipline

Formal discipline is administered by congregation elders. When an accusation of serious sin is made concerning a baptized member, a tribunal or judicial committee is formed to determine guilt, administer help and possibly apply sanctions. Disfellowshipping is the most severe form of discipline administered, which requires the person to be shunned by all baptized members.[150] Exceptions to this would include cases where a member was forced to have commercial dealings with a member who is disfellowshipped, or if the disfellowshipped member is living with family members who are baptized. The stated purpose of disfellowshipping is to keep the congregation free from immoral influence and to shame wrong-doers into repentance,[151] but the threat of shunning also serves to deter other members from dissident behavior.[152][153] Reproof involves sins that could lead to disfellowshipping. Ones considered "truly repentant" are reproved rather than disfellowshipped.[154] Marking is practiced if a person's course of action is regarded as a violation of Bible principles, reflecting badly on the congregation, but is not a disfellowshipping offense.[155] An announcement is made stating that the actions in question are wrong, without naming the individual involved. Congregation members limit social contact with that person. The purpose of this is to shame the person into correcting their actions.[156]

Avoidance of interfaith activity

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the Bible condemns the mixing of religions on the basis that there can only be one truth from God.[157][158] They believe that only their religion represents true Christianity, and that all other religions fail to meet all the requirements set by God and will be destroyed,[159] and therefore reject interfaith and ecumenical movements.[160]

Separateness

Main article: Jehovah's Witnesses and governments

Jehovah's Witnesses believe their highest allegiance belongs to God's Kingdom, which is viewed as an actual government in heaven, hence they remain politically neutral, do not seek public office and are discouraged from voting, though individual members may participate in uncontroversial community improvement issues.[161][162][163][164] They abstain from celebrating religious holidays and birthdays and reject many customs they claim have pagan origins. They do not work in industries associated with the military, do not serve in the armed services[165] and refuse national military service, which in some countries may result in their arrest and imprisonment.[166] They do not salute or pledge allegiance to flags or sing national anthems and patriotic songs.[167]

Jehovah’s Witnesses are taught it is vital they remain "separate from the world." Watch Tower publications define the "world" as "the mass of mankind apart from Jehovah’s approved servants" and teach that it is ruled by Satan and a place of danger and moral contamination.[168][169][170] Because of perceived dangers from "worldly" association, Witnesses are advised to minimize social contact with non-members to better maintain their own standards of morality.[171][172][173][174][175][171]

Blood

Main article: Jehovah's Witnesses and blood transfusions
Jehovah's Witnesses officially reject transfusions of whole allogeneic blood

Jehovah's Witnesses are directed to refuse blood transfusions.[176] In 1961, accepting a blood transfusion became grounds for expulsion from the religion.[177] They do not accept the threat of death as sufficient to dissuade them from rejecting blood transfusions for themselves or their children.[178] Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the Bible prohibits blood transfusions based on their interpretation of Acts 15:28-29.

Jehovah's Witnesses are not permitted to accept red cells, white cells, platelets or plasma, though they may accept fractions made from these components at their own discretion.[179][180] The Watch Tower Society provides members with Power of Attorney documents to indicate which optional fractions they accept, with preformatted wording prohibiting major components.[181][182] If a fraction "makes up a significant portion of that component" or "carries out the key function of a primary component", it may be objectionable to some but is permissible.[183]

Demographics

Average Publishers, 1945–2005
Main article: Demographics of Jehovah's Witnesses

It is proven that 90% of personality disorders are caused by the individual being exposed to the horrific upbringing in this hope destroying cult. Jehovah's Witnesses have an active presence in most countries, though they do not form a large part of the population of any country. As of February 2008, Jehovah's Witnesses have an average of 7.2 million "publishers", the term they use for members actively involved in preaching. In 2007, these reports indicated a total of over 1.3 billion hours spent in preaching and Bible study activity. Since the mid-1990s, the number of peak publishers has increased from 4.5 million to 7.2 million,[184] though there has been a decline in growth rates, from over 8% per annum in the mid 1970s, to 5% per annum in the mid 1990s, to about 2%–3% per annum since 1999.[185] The official published membership statistics only include those who have reported preaching activity, and do not include "inactive" and disfellowshipped members, and any who have either not been involved in preaching or have not submitted reports. Jehovah's Witnesses have the lowest retention rate of all religious traditions in the United States. Only about one-third of American children among Jehovah’s Witnesses still identify themselves with the religion as adults.[186]

Main publications used

Main article: List of Jehovah's Witnesses publications

The publishing arm of Jehovah's Witnesses, known as the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania, engages in extensive publishing work, with the production of books, brochures, and other media. The most widespread are:

  • New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures, (1961, revised 1984) a translation of the Bible by the New World Bible Translation Committee. It extensively uses the name Jehovah, an English version of the Hebrew Tetragrammaton, also replacing the Greek word for "Lord" 237 times in the New Testament. It is available in 72 languages.
  • The Watchtower, a 32-page magazine, published since 1879, for use in the public ministry; published twice per month, on the 1st and a 15th of each month. From 2008 onward, the issue published on the 15th of each month is a Study Edition for use at the Watchtower Study and not used in the public ministry. It is available in 171 languages.
  • Awake!, a 32-page general interest magazine, with a wider scope than the Watchtower, usually including articles on science, nature, and geography, usually with a religious slant. Earlier titles for this magazine were The Golden Age (1919–1937) and Consolation (1937–1946). Until 2005, Awake! was published on the 8th and 22nd of each month; from 2006 onwards, one issue is published each month. It is available in 81 languages.
  • What Does the Bible Really Teach?, (2005) the textbook used to conduct Bible studies.[187] It is available in 176 languages.

Criticism and controversies

Main article: Controversies regarding Jehovah's Witnesses

Jehovah's Witnesses have attracted controversy over issues surrounding their Bible translation, doctrines, their handling of sexual abuse cases and what is claimed to be coercion of members.

Biblical controversies

The Watch Tower Society's New World Translation of the Bible has attracted criticism over the credentials of its translators,[188] its insertion of the name "Jehovah" 237 times in the New Testament without evidence that the name existed in the original Greek manuscripts,[189] and the translation of certain texts which may be biased towards specific Witness practices and doctrines.[190]

Doctrinal controversies

The Watch Tower Society has been accused of making false predictions[191] and issuing self-aggrandizing statements.[192][193] Watch Tower publications since the 1870s have issued numerous predictions based on Biblical chronology, many of them surrounding the dates 1914, 1925 and 1975. None of these predictions has been fulfilled.[194] It has also been accused of making false claims to act as a prophet in making predictions about the future.[195][196] Its publications have made the explicit claim that God has used Jehovah's Witnesses as a prophet[197][198] and urged members of the religion to place unwavering trust in those predictions,[199] but has condemned others for making false predictions about the future.[200]

The Watch Tower Society claims that Jehovah's Witnesses practice true Christianity[201] and that the religion's Governing Body is the sole "channel" of communication between God and man.[202][203] The Watch Tower Society has claimed the Bible cannot be properly understood "without Jehovah's visible organization in mind"[204] and warned that individual interpretation of the Bible is dangerous and foolish.[205]

The Watch Tower Society has substantially altered doctrines since its inception and abandoned core teachings, many involving Bible chronology, it had earlier claimed as beyond question.[206][207][208][209]

Social controversies

Former Governing Body member Raymond Franz claims the religion's emphasis on its "theocratic" organization is designed to exercise control over every aspect of the lives of Jehovah's Witnesses[210] and condition them to think it is wrong for them to question statements by the Watch Tower Society.[27] Watch Tower literature warns against the "dangers" and "infection" of "independent thinking", such as questioning the counsel it provides.[211] Franz claims that the Watch Tower Society's firm discouragement of members to read criticism of the organization[212][213] or scriptural material published by other religions[214][215] creates a form of mental isolation that has been cited as an element of mind control.[216] Constant urging to devote increasing amounts of time to door-to-door preaching has been described as coercive pressure.[217] Medical and legal commentators have also noted cases of Witness medical patients being coerced to obey the religion's ban on blood transfusions.[13][14]

Sexual abuse

Main article: Jehovah's Witnesses and child sex abuse

Critics such as Silentlambs have accused Jehovah's Witnesses of employing organizational policies that make the reporting of sexual abuse difficult for members and some victims of sexual abuse have asserted that when reporting abuse they were ordered to maintain silence to avoid embarrassment to both the accused and the organization.[218][219]

References

  1. ^ Stark; et al. (1997). "Why Jehovah's Witnesses Grow So Rapidly: A Theoretical Application". Journal of Contemporary Religion. 12 (2): 133–157. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  2. ^ Oxford English Dictionary. Jehovah's Witness: a member of a fundamentalist millenary sect (Emphasis added)
  3. ^ Jehovah’s Witness. Microsoft. Retrieved 9 May 2009. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |work= ignored (help)
  4. ^ "Membership and Publishing Statistics". Office of Public Information of Jehovah's Witnesses. While other religious groups count their membership by occasional or annual attendance, this figure reflects only those who are actively involved in the public Bible educational work [of Jehovah's Witnesses].
  5. ^ "“Guided by God’s Spirit”", Awake!, June 2008, page 32, "In 2007, more than 12 million people attended over 3,200 of such conventions!"
  6. ^ "Preaching and Teaching Earth Wide—2007 Grand Totals", 2008 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, page 31, "2007 Grand Totals...Worldwide Memorial Attendance: 17,672,443"
  7. ^ "Denominational profile". The Association of Religion Data Archives (ARDA).
  8. ^ Botting, Heather (1984). The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. pp. 60–75. ISBN 0-8020-6545-7. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  9. ^ Franz, Raymond (2007). In Search of Christian Freedom. Commentary Press. p. 190. Rutherford wanted to unify the preaching work and, instead of having each individual give his own opinion ... gradually Rutherford himself began to be the main spokesman for the organization. (Franz quoting Faith on the March, 1957, A. H. MacMillan)
  10. ^ Penton, M. J. (1997). Apocalypse Delayed (2nd ed.). University of Toronto Press. p. 1.
  11. ^ The Jehovah's Witnesses and Prophetic Speculation, Edmond C. Gruss, 1972, ISBN 0-87552-306-4, pages 11, 21.
  12. ^ Evans, Allan S. (1973). What man Believes: A study of the World’s Great Faiths. McGraw-Hill Ryerson. p. 424. ISBN 0-07-077440-4. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  13. ^ a b "Jehovah's Witnesses case heads to B.C. court". Vancouver Sun. 1 April 1, 2007. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  14. ^ a b J Guicho and, I Mitchell (2006). "Medical emergencies in children of orthodox Jehovah's Witness families: Three recent legal cases, ethical issues and proposals for management". Paediatrics & Child Health, Canadian Pediatric Society. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  15. ^ "Armenia violates Jehovah's Witnesses' rights-Amnesty". Reuters. 16 January 2008.
  16. ^ "UNHCR report". 28 May 2008.
  17. ^ "Tajikistan: Jehovah's Witnesses Banned". F18News. 18 October 2007.
  18. ^ Penton, M.J. (1997). Apocalypse Delayed. University of Toronto Press. p. 7. ISBN 0802079733, 9780802079732. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
  19. ^ Holden, Andrew (2002). Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement. Routledge. pp. 7, 109–112. ISBN 0415266092.
  20. ^ Franz, Raymond (2007). In Search of Christian Freedom. Atlanta: Commentary Press. p. 754. ISBN 0-914675-17-6.
  21. ^ {{cite book| last = Botting| first = Heather | coauthors = Gary Botting| title = The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses| publisher = University of Toronto Press| year = 1984| isbn = 0-8020-6545-7
  22. ^ "Working in the “Field”—Before the Harvest", The Watchtower, October 15, 2000, page 28
  23. ^ "Proclaiming the Lord’s Return (1870-1914)", Jehovah's Witnesses-Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, p. 44-46
  24. ^ a b Holden, A. (2002). Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement. Routledge. p. 18.
  25. ^ "Prospectus". Zion's Watch Tower. 1 July 1879.
  26. ^ Jehovah's Witnesses: Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society. 1993. p. 576.
  27. ^ a b c d e Franz, Raymond (2007). "Chapter 4". In Search of Christian Freedom. Commentary Press. Cite error: The named reference "Franz4" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  28. ^ "A Time of Testing (1914-1918)". Jehovah's Witnesses - Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. p. 64.
  29. ^ a b Penton, M. J. (1997). Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0802079733.
  30. ^ a b Franz, Raymond (2002). "Chapter 3". Crisis of Conscience. Commentary Press.
  31. ^ A.H. MacMillan. Faith on the March (PDF). p. 80. Retrieved 2007-10-25.
  32. ^ The Finished Mystery at Google Books
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  36. ^ Proclaimers, p. 252.
  37. ^ Proclaimers, p. 74.
  38. ^ Rutherford et al. vs. the United States (1918). See also "Application for Executive Clemency". 1919., "Reversal by Appeals Court" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-12-30.
  39. ^ M.J. Penton. Apocalypse Delayed. pp. 55–56.
  40. ^ Apocalypse Delayed at Google Books
  41. ^ Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society. 1993. pp. 647–654.
  42. ^ Rutherford gives his defense against the charges in the tract The Case of the IBSA
  43. ^ Alan Rogerson, Millions Now Living Will Never Die, Constable, 1969, pages 38-44.
  44. ^ Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society. 1993. pp. 72–77.
  45. ^ a b Franz, Raymond (2007). In Search of Christian Freedom. p. 144.
  46. ^ Gross, Edmond C. (2001). "Chapter 24". Jehovah's Witnesses: Their Claims, Doctrinal Changes, and Prophetic Speculation. What Does the Record Show?. Xulon Press. ISBN 193123230X.
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  48. ^ Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose. Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society. 1959. p. 313.
  49. ^ Penton, M.J. (1997). Apocalypse Delayed. University of Toronto Press. p. 61-62. ISBN 0802079733, 9780802079732. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
  50. ^ The Harp of God. 1921. pp. 231–236. states that "the Lord's second presence dates from 1874."
  51. ^ The Harp of God at Google Books
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  54. ^ Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society. 1993. pp. 84–85.
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  57. ^ "United States Holocaust Memorial Museum". Retrieved February 22, 2005. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |dateformat= ignored (help)
  58. ^ Hesse, Hans (2001). Persecution and Resistance of Jehovah's Witnesses During the Nazi Regime. p. 10.
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  60. ^ Harrison, Barbara (1978). Visions of Glory. pp. 185, 281.
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  64. ^ Franz, Raymond (2007). Crisis of Conscience. Commentary Press. p. 72.
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  69. ^ "Awake!". Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society. October 8, 1968: 14. Does this mean that the above evidence positively points to 1975 as the complete end of this system of things? Since the Bible does not specifically state this, no man can say...If the 1970s should see intervention by Jehovah God to bring an end to a corrupt world drifting toward ultimate disintegration, that should surely not surprise us. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
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  71. ^ "Kingdom Ministry". 1974. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
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  73. ^ Singelenberg, Richard (1989). "The '1975'-prophecy and its impact among Dutch Jehovah's Witnesses". Sociological Analysis (1): 23–40. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |vol= ignored (|volume= suggested) (help) Notes a nine percent drop in total publishers (door-to-door preachers) and a 38 per cent drop in pioneers (full-time preachers) in the Netherlands.
  74. ^ Stark and Iannoccone (1997). "The Journal of Contemporary Religion" (PDF): 142–143. Retrieved 2008-12-30. {{cite journal}}: |article= ignored (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  75. ^ Dart, John (January 30, 1982). "Defectors Feel 'Witness' Wrath: Critics say Baptism Rise Gives False Picture of Growth". Los Angeles Times. p. B4. Cited statistics showing a net increase of publishers worldwide from 1971–1981 of 737,241, while baptisms totaled 1.71 million for the same period.
  76. ^ "The Watchtower". March 15, 1980: 17. With the appearance of the book Life Everlasting—in Freedom of the Sons of God, ... considerable expectation was aroused regarding the year 1975. ... there were other statements published that implied that such realization of hopes by that year was more of a probability than a mere possibility. It is to be regretted that these latter statements apparently overshadowed the cautionary ones and contributed to a buildup of the expectation already initiated. ... persons having to do with the publication of the information ... contributed to the buildup of hopes centered on that date. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
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  78. ^ 1977 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses. p. 258.
  79. ^ First occurrence: "Cruelties Go Unchecked in Malawi". Awake!: 3. 22 March 1976.
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  81. ^ Twelve members as of September 2005 (See The Watchtower, March 15, 2006, page 26)
    Schroeder died March 8, 2006 (See The Watchtower, September 15, 2006, page 31)
    Sydlik died April 18, 2006 (See The Watchtower, January 1, 2007, page 8)
    Barber died April 8, 2007 (See The Watchtower, October 15, 2007, page 31)
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  98. ^ Reasoning From The Scriptures | p. 199 - p. 208 Jehovah’s Witnesses
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  123. ^ The Watchtower July 1, 1995 p. 21 par 17,18.
  124. ^ "The Only Remedy!", The Watchtower, March 15, 2006, p. 6.
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  134. ^ Insight on the Scriptures. Vol. 2. 1988. p. 1004. The...Scriptures show 'soul' to be a person, an animal, or the life that a person or an animal enjoys.
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  144. ^ "The Bible's Viewpoint What Does It Mean to Be the Head of the House?". Awake!: 26. July 8, 2004.
  145. ^ "Is Divorce the Answer?", Awake!, September 8, 2004, page 26, "Jesus later stated that “the ground of fornication” is the only basis for Scriptural divorce with the possibility of entering a new marriage."
  146. ^ Penton, M. James (1997). Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. p. 112. ISBN 0-8020-7973-3.
  147. ^ "Adultery". Insight on the Scriptures. p. 53. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |vol= ignored (|volume= suggested) (help)
  148. ^ "Marriage—Why Many Walk Out", Awake!, July 8, 1993, page 6, "A legal divorce or a legal separation may provide a measure of protection from extreme abuse or willful nonsupport."
  149. ^ "When Marital Peace Is Threatened". The Watchtower: 22. 1 November 1988.
  150. ^ The Watchtower April 15, 1988.
  151. ^ "Appendix: How to Treat a Disfellowshipped person". Keep Yourselves in God's Love. Jehovah's Witnesses. 2008. pp. 198–202.
  152. ^ Holden, Andrew (2002). Jehovah's Witnesses - Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement. Routledge. p. 163. ISBN 0-414-26610-6. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help)
  153. ^ "Make Wise Use of Your Christian Freedom", Watchtower, June 1, 1992, page 18.
  154. ^ “Questions From Readers”, The Watchtower, January 1, 1983 pp. 30-31.
  155. ^ The Watchtower, July 15, 1999, p. 30.
  156. ^ Questions From Readers, The Watchtower, April 15, 1985, p. 31.
  157. ^ "Is Interfaith God's Way?". The Watchtower: 69. 1 February 1952.
  158. ^ "Religion's Future in View of Its Past Part 22—1900 onward—False Religion—Overtaken by Its Past!". Awake!: 22. 22 November 1989.
  159. ^ "15 Worship That God Approves". What Does The Bible Really Teach?. p. 145.
  160. ^ "Should the Religions Unite?". The Watchtower: 741–742. 15 December 1953.
  161. ^ Questions From Readers, The Watchtower, November 1, 1999, p. 28,"As to whether they will personally vote for someone running in an election, each one of Jehovah’s Witnesses makes a decision based on his Bible-trained conscience and an understanding of his responsibility to God and to the State.
  162. ^ Pay Attention to Yourselves and to All the Flock, page 140.
  163. ^ What Does God Require?, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1996, page 13.
  164. ^ Questions From Readers, The Watchtower, March 1, 1983, p. 30
  165. ^ Worship the Only True God, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 2002, p. 159.
  166. ^ Watch Tower Press Release, October 4, 2007
  167. ^ Education, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 2002, pp. 20-23
  168. ^ Reasoning From the Scriptures, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1989, pages 435-436.
  169. ^ "Live a Balanced, Simple Life", Watchtower, July 15, 1989, page 11.
  170. ^ Holden, Andrew (2002). Jehovah's Witnesses - Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement. Routledge. p. 12. ISBN 0-414-26610-6. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help)
  171. ^ a b Holden, Andrew (2002). Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement. Routledge. pp. 109–112. ISBN 0-415-26610-6.
  172. ^ Franz, Raymond (2007). In Search of Christian Freedom. Commentary Press. p. 409. ISBN 0-914675-17-6.
  173. ^ "Train With Godly Devotion as Your Aim", Watchtower, August 15, 1985, page 19.
  174. ^ "Are You Pursuing Virtue?". The Watchtower. Jehovah's Witnesses: 19. 15 July 1997.
  175. ^ Survival Into a New Earth, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1984, page 168.
  176. ^ Penton, M.J. (1997). Apocalypse Delayed. p. i.
  177. ^ Muramoto, O. (January 6, 2001). "Bioethical aspects of the recent changes in the policy of refusal of blood by Jehovah's Witnesses". BMJ. 322: 37–39. doi:10.1136/bmj.322.7277.37. PMID 11141155.
  178. ^ Bowman, R. M. (1995). Jehovah's Witnesses. Zondervan. p. 13. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  179. ^ "Questions From Readers–Do Jehovah's Witnesses accept any medical products derived from blood?". The Watchtower: 30. June 15, 2000.
  180. ^ Sniesinski; et al. (2007). "Coagulopathy After Cardiopulmonary Bypass in Jehovah's Witness Patients: Management of Two Cases Using Fractionated Components and Factor VIIa" (PDF). Anesthesia & Analgesia. 104: 763. doi:10.1213/01.ane.0000250913.45299.f3. Retrieved 2008-12-30. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  181. ^ Durable Power of Attorney form. Watch Tower Society. January 2001. p. 1. Examples of permitted fractions are: Interferon, Immune Serum Globulins and Factor VIII; preparations made from Hemoglobin such as PolyHeme and Hemopure. Examples of permitted procedures involving the medical use of one's own blood include: Cell Salvage, Hemodilution, Heart-Lung Machine, Dialysis, Epidural Blood Patch, Plasmapheresis, Labeling or Tagging of Blood and Platelet Gel (Autologous)
  182. ^ "Our Kingdom Ministry" (PDF). November 2006: 5–6. Retrieved 2009-06-21. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  183. ^ "The Real Value of Blood". Awake!: 11. August 2006.
  184. ^ Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses. Watch Tower Society. 1996–2008.
  185. ^ Grundy, Paul. "Facts about truth and Jehovah's Witnesses".
  186. ^ "U.S. Religious Landscape Survey Religious Affiliation: Diverse and Dynamic". Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life. 2008: 9, 30. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  187. ^ "The Bible Teach Book—Our Primary Bible Study Aid". Our Kingdom Ministry: 1. January 2006.
  188. ^ Franz, Raymond (2007). Crisis of Conscience. Commentary Press. p. 56. ISBN 0-914675-23-0.
  189. ^ Franz, Raymond (2007). In Search of Christian Freedom. Commentary Press. pp. 494–505. ISBN 0-914675-17-6.
  190. ^ Penton, M. James (1997). Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. pp. 174–176. ISBN 0-8020-7973-3.
  191. ^ Penton, M. James (1997). Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. p. 4. ISBN 0-8020-7973-3.
  192. ^ Franz, Raymond (2007). In Search of Christian Freedom. Commentary Press. p. 107. ISBN 0-914675-17-6.
  193. ^ Botting, Heather (1997). The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. pp. 70–75. ISBN 0-8020-6545-7. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  194. ^ Franz, Raymond (2007). Crisis of Conscience. Commentary Press. pp. 204–236. ISBN 0-914675-23-0.
  195. ^ Waldeck, Val Jehovah's Witnesses: What do they believe?. Pilgrim Publications SA. ISBN 1-920092-08-0.
  196. ^ Buttrey, John M (2004). Let No One Mislead You. iUniverse. ISBN 0-595-30710-8.
  197. ^ "They Shall Know That a Prophet Was Among Them", Watchtower, April 1, 1972, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, 2007.
  198. ^ The Watchtower, January 15, 1959, pp.39-41,"Whom has God actually used as his prophet? ... Jehovah's witnesses are deeply grateful today that the plain facts show that God has been pleased to use them. ... It has been because Jehovah thrust out his hand of power and touched their lips and put his words in their mouths..."
  199. ^ Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, 2007, page 174.
  200. ^ Awake!, October 8, 1968, p. 23.
  201. ^ The Watchtower, What Does God Require of Us?, January 15, 1997, p. 22
  202. ^ "Jehovah and Christ—Foremost Communicators", Watchtower, September 1, 1991, pages 15-19.
  203. ^ "Christian Channel of Communication", Watchtower, May 15, 1955.
  204. ^ Watchtower, October 1, 1967, as cited by M. James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, University of Toronto Press, page 163.
  205. ^ Watchtower, February 1, 1952, pages 79, 80 as cited by Raymond Franz, In Search of Christian Freedom, 2007, page 97.
  206. ^ Watch Tower, 1916, as cited by James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, page 46.
  207. ^ "The Corroborative Testimony of God's Stone Witness and Prophet, The Great Pyramid in Egypt", Chapter 10, Thy Kingdom Come, third volume of Studies in the Scriptures, 1910.
  208. ^ Thy Kingdom Come, 1891, page 23.
  209. ^ Watchtower, May 1, 1922, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, page 221.
  210. ^ R. Franz, In Search of Christian Freedom, chapter 17.
  211. ^ "Exposing the Devil’s Subtle Designs" and "Armed for the Fight Against Wicked Spirits", Watchtower, January 15, 1983, as cited by Heather and Gary Botting, The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses, 1984, page 92.
  212. ^ "Do not be quickly shaken from your reason", Watchtower, March 15, 1986
  213. ^ "At which table are you feeding?" Watchtower, July 1, 1994
  214. ^ Watchtower, May 1, 1984, page 31, as cited by R. Franz, "In Search if Christian Freedom", chapter 12
  215. ^ "Firmly uphold godly teaching," Watchtower, May 1, 2000, page 9.
  216. ^ R. Franz, "In Search if Christian Freedom", chapter 12
  217. ^ R. Franz, In Search of Christian Freedom, chapter 6.
  218. ^ "Another Church Sex Scandal" (April 29, 2003). CBS News.
  219. ^ Cutrer, Corrie (March 5, 2001). "Witness Leaders Accused of Shielding Molesters", Christianity Today.

Further reading

  • Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses by M. James Penton. Penton, professor emeritus of history at University of Lethbridge and a former member of the religion, examines the history of Jehovah's Witnesses, and their doctrines. Read selections from: Apocalypse Delayed: the Story of Jehovah's Witnesses University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-7973-3 (Canada, 1998) (Google book search)
  • Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement by Andrew Holden. An academic study on the sociological aspects of Jehovah's Witnesses phenomenon. Publisher: Routledge; 1st edition 2002, ISBN 978–0415266109. 224 pages.
  • Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom (1993) by Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. Official history of the development of the beliefs, practices, and organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses. 750 pages.
  • A People for His Name: A History of Jehovah's Witnesses and an Evaluation by Tony Wills, (2006) 2nd edition. (The first edition was published under the pseudonym Timothy White.) He explores the Witnesses' doctrinal growth and shifts and notes schisms from the main body. 300 pages. ISBN 978–1-4303–0100–4 Selections from Google Books
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