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Hungarian Turanism (Hungarian: Turánizmus or Turanizmus) is a loosely defined and diverse multidisciplinary scientific and political movement, which has been most lively in the second half of the 19th century and in the first half of the 20th century. Hungarian Turanism has been based on an ancient tradition that places the Hungarians' ancestral homeland in Asia. ^[1]

As a scientific movement, Turanism was concerned with the research of Asia and its culture in context of Hungarian history and culture. It was embodied and represented by many scholars who had shared premises (i.e. the Asian origin of the Hungarians, and their kinship with Asian peoples), and arrived at the same or very similar conclusions. Turanism was a driving force in the development of Hungarian social sciences, especially linguistics, archaeology and Orientalism.

Political Turanism was born in the 19th century, in response to the growing influence of Pan-Germanism and Pan-Slavism, seen by Hungarians as very dangerous to the state and nation of Hungary, because the country had large ethnic German and Slavic populations.^[1] Political Turanism was a romantic nationalist movement, which accentuated the importance of common ancestry and cultural affinity of the Hungarians with the peoples of the Caucasus, Inner and Central Asia, like the Turks, Mongols, Parsi etc., and called for closer collaboration and political alliance with them, as a means of securing and furthering shared interests, and to counter the imminent threats posed by the policies of Western powers like Germany, the British Empire, France and Russia. The idea of the necessity for "Turanian brotherhood and collaboration" was borrowed from the "Slavic brotherhood and collaboration" idea of Pan-slavism.^[2] After the First World War, political Turanism played a minor role in the formation of Hungarian far right ideologies.

"While Turanism was and remained little more than a fringe ideology of the Right, the second orientation of the national socialists, pan-Europaism, had a number of adherents, and was adopted as the platform of several national socialist groups." in: Andrew C. János: The Politics of Backwardness in Hungary, 1825-1945. 1982. p.275.^[3]

After the Second World War, in the communist era of Hungary, Turanism was portrayed and vilified as an exclusively fascist ideology.^[4]

"In Hungary the Nationsocialist Party which ascended to power in 1944, took over several theses from Turanism's range of ideas, and as a result the popularity of Turanism strongly dwindled, and then in the socialist era it was labelled as "fascist"."

"Magyarországon az 1944-ben uralomra jutott Nemzetszocialista Párt több tételt átvett a turanizmus eszmeköréből, aminek következtében a turanizmus népszerűsége erősen lecsökkent, majd a szocializmusban „fasisztává” minősült." in: Magyar Katolikus Lexikon. Turanizmus.

The Hungarians were (semi-)nomads^[5] before the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin and their culture was similar to other steppe peoples. Most scientists presume a Uralic homeland of ancient Hungarian conquerors (mainly on linguistic grounds, and on the base of limited genetic researches carried out recently on a very limited number of ancient skeletons, found in graves from the age of the Conquest^[6]^[7]). The proto-Hungarian tribes were situated in the Eurasiatic forest steppe zone,^[8] therefore, the ancient relations of the Hungarians and their interactions with other equestrian nomadic peoples are still debated issues.^[9]

Its roots, origins, and development

The beginnings

It is a well-known fact that the marked interest in the genetic classification of languages prevailing in the last century and at the beginning of the present one has its roots in European nationalisms. The exact knowledge of dialects and languages was supposed to strengthen the national individuality and to align nations in ‘natural’ alliances. ^[10]

Friedrich Max Müller, the German Orientalist and philologist, published and proposed a new grouping of the non-Aryan and non-Semitic Asian languages in 1855. In his work "The languages of the seat of war in the East. With a survey of the three families of language, Semitic, Arian, and Turanian." he called these languages "Turanian". Müller divided this group into two subgroups, the Southern Division, and the Northern Division. Hungarian language was classed by him as a member of this Northern Division, in the Finnic Class, in the Ugric Branch, with the Voguls and Ugro-Ostiakes as closest relatives.^[11] (In the long run, his theory proved unsound, but his Northern Division was renamed and re-classed as the Ural-Altaic languages.) His theory was well known and widely discussed in international scientific circles, and was known to Hungarian scientists as well. He was invited to Budapest, the Hungarian capital, by Ármin Vámbéry, the Orientalist and Turkologist, in 1874, and become an associate member of the Hungarian Aceademy of Sciences. His public lectures received wide attention, and his terms (originally borrowed by him from Persian texts) "Turan" and "Turanian" become denizens in Hungarian language as "Turán" and "turáni". The meaning of these terms was never defined officially. Vámbéry himself used "Turan" to denote the areas of Eastern Balkan, Central and Inner Asia inhabited by Turkic peoples, and used "Turanian" to denote those Turkic peoples and languages (and he meant the Finno-Ugric peoples and languages as the members of this group), which lived in or originated from this "Turan" area. Hungarian scientists shared his definition. But in common parlance these terms were used in many (and often different) meanings and senses.

Hungarians have had a thousand year old, and still living tradition about the Asian origins of Magyars. This tradition was preserved in medieval chronicles (such as Gesta Hungarorum^[12] and Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum^[13]) as early as the 13th century. This tradition served as starting point for the scientific research of the ethnogenesis of Hungarian people, which began in the 18th century, in Hungary and abroad. Sándor Kőrösi Csoma (the writer of the first Tibetan-English dictionary) traveled to Asia in the strong belief that he could find the kindred of Magyars in Turkestan, amongst the Uyghurs.^[14]

"...when Kőrösi set off for the search of the ancient homeland of Magyars and the 'left behind Magyars', he considered that he might find those somewhere in Central Asia, respectively amongst the Uighurs..."^[15]

Vámbéry Ármin had the same motivation for his travels to Asia and the Ottoman Empire.

"...from this came my hope, that with the help of comparative linguistics I could find a ray of light in Central Asia, which dispels the gloom over the dark corners of Hungarian prehistory..."

"...következett tehát ebből az a reménységem, hogy Középázsiában az összehasonlító nyelvtudomány segítségével világosságot vető sugarat lelhetek, mely eloszlatja a homályt a magyar őstörténelem sötét tájairól...." in: Vámbéry Ármin: Küzdelmeim. Ch.IV. p. 62.

The linguistic theories of the Dutch philosopher Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn and the German thinker Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz gave the real basis of the modern scientific research of the origin of the Hungarian language and people. Boxhorn conjectured that the European and Indo-Iranian languages were all derived from a shared ancestor language, and he named this ancestor language "Scythian", after the equestrian, nomadic warriors of the Asian steppes. But linguists theorizing about ancestor languages had to deal with the common belief of the era, that, according to the Bible, Hebrew was the original language of all humans. Leibniz published material countering the Biblical theory, and supported Boxhorn's notion of a Scythian ancestor language.

"Information about hither-to unknown peoples and languages of Asia and the Americas came into the hands of scholars such as Gottfried Leibniz, who recognized that there was no better method “for specifying the relationship and origin of the various peoples of the earth, than the comparison of their languages”. In order to classify as many languages as possible in genealogical groupings, Leibniz proposed that similar materials be collected from each newly-described language. To this end he asked that explorers either obtain translations of well-known Christian prayers such as the Pater Noster, or, better yet, “words for common things” (vocabula rerum vulgarium), a sample list of which he appended to a letter to the Turkologist D. Podesta (Leibniz 1768/1989b).The word list included numerals, kinship terms, body parts, necessitates (food, drink, weapons,domestic animals), naturalia (God, celestial and weather phenomena, topographic features, wild animals) and a dozen verbs (eat, drink, speak, see …). Leibniz took a particular interest in the expansion of the Russian Empire southward and eastward, and lists based on his model were taken on expeditions sent by the tsars to study the territories recently brought under their control, as well as the peoples living on these and on nearby lands." Kevin Tuite: The rise and fall and revival of the Ibero-Caucasian hypothesis. 2008. in: Historiographia Linguistica, 35 #1; p. 23-82.

Leibniz recognized that the Semitic languages such as Hebrew and Arabic, and some European languages like Sami, Finnish, and Hungarian did not belong to the same language family as most of the languages of Europe. He recognized the connection between the Finnish languages and Hungarian. He placed the original homeland of the Hungarians to the Volga-Caspian Sea region.

These theories had a great impact on the research of the origins of the Hungarian language and the ethnogenesis of Hungarian nation. Both of the two main views/theories about the origin of the Hungarian people and language, the one about the Turkic origin, and the other about the Finno-Ugric origin had their scientific roots in them.

In fact, the Turkic theory matched the tradition (the Gestas) and historical sources (like the works of Constantine VII) better, but the accounts and works of travelers like Swedish Philip Johan von Strahlenberg (published in his work:" An historico-geographical description of the north and east parts of Europe and Asia ") turned the attention to the "Finnish-Hungarian connection".^[16]

The followers of the "Turkist" and "Ugrist" theories lived together peacefully, the theories were refined as science developed (in fact the two theories converged, as linguists, like Rasmus Christian Rask and Matthias Castrén, recognized the similarities and connection between Finn-Ugric and Altaic languages), and the discourse remained fully scientific up until the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 and the 1848-49 War of Independence. But after the bitter experiences of the war and the defeat everything got political overtones.

"... the Sun went down into a sea of blood. The night of immeasurable grief fell on Hungary; her noblest powers were broken. Even the gates of scientific institutions became closed..."

"...a Nap vértengerbe áldozott le. Magyarországra a mérhetetlen gyásznak éjszakája borult; legnemesebb erői törve voltak. Még a tudományos intézetek kapui is bezárultak..." in: Herman Ottó: Petényi J. S. a magyar tudományos madártan megalapítója. p. 39.^[17]

The role of the Habsburgs

The Habsburgs introduced dictatorial rule, and every aspect of Hungarian life was put under close scrutiny and governmental control. Press and theatrical/public performances were censored.^[18]^[19]

„The government of Prime Minister prince Félix von Schwarzenberg, operating since November 1848, pursued radically new imperial policy. It wished to develop a uniform empire in the spirit of the imperial constitution issued by the young Franz Joseph I in Olmütz on 4 March 1849, Hungary's constitution and her territorial integrity were abolished and she became subsumed into the hereditary lands. After Világos actual military dictatorship was built up on Hungary whose territory was partitioned into crown lands. On 31 December 1851 the Emperor abolished the constitution of 4 March 1849 with an edict, and introduced absolutism in the empire which was declared to be unified.”

„Az 1848 novembere óta működő Félix von Schwarzenberg herceg miniszterelnök vezette kormány gyökeresen új birodalmi politikát követett. A fiatal I. Ferenc József által Olmützben, 1849. március 4-én kiadott birodalmi alkotmány szellemében egységes összbirodalmat kívánt kialakítani, Magyarország alkotmányát, területi integritását eltörölték és beosztották az örökös tartományok közé. Világos után tényleges katonai diktatúrát építettek ki a koronatartományokra szabdalt Magyarországon. 1851. december 31-én a császár egy pátenssel eltörölte az 1849. március 4-i alkotmányt, és abszolutizmust vezetett be az egységesnek deklarált birodalomban.” Csohány János: Leo Thun egyházpolitikája. In: Egyháztörténeti Szemle. 11/2. 2010.

German became the official language of public administration. The edict issued on 1849.X.9. (Grundsätze für die provisorische Organisation des Unterrichtswesens in dem Kronlande Ungarn), placed education under state control, the curriculum was prescribed and controlled by the state, the education of national history was confined, and history was educated from a Habsburg viewpoint.^[20] Even the bastion of Hungarian culture, the Academy was kept under control: the institution was staffed with foreigners, mostly Germans and ethnic Germans, and the institution was practically defunct until the end of 1858.^[21]^[22]^[23] Hungarians responded with passive resistance. Questions of nation, language, national origin became politically sensitive matters. Anti-Habsburg and anti-German sentiments were strong. A large number of freedom fighters took refuge in the Ottoman Empire. This resulted in renewed cultural exchange, and mutual sympathy. Turks were seen by many as good allies of the Hungarian cause. Such was the atmosphere, when Vámbéry traveled to Constantinople in 1857 for the first time.^[24]

"It should happen and it will happen - I encouraged myself with this, and did not hurt me other problems, just this one: how could I get a passport from the strict and suspicious Austrian authorities, and exactly to Turkey, where the Hungarian emigration resided, and, as was believed in Vienna, made rebellious plans tirelessly."

"Mennie kell és menni fog, - ezzel biztattam magam és nem bántott más gond, csak az az egy: hogy mi úton-módon kaphatok útlevelet a szigorú és gyanakvó osztrák hatóságtól; hozzá még épen Törökországba, hol akkor a magyar emigráczió tartotta székét és, mint Bécsben hitték, pártütő terveket sző fáradhatatlanúl." in: Vámbéry Ármin: Küzdelmeim. Ch. IV. p. 42.^[25]

And this atmosphere granted public interest for the then new theory of Max Müller. The Habsburg government saw this "Turkism" as dangerous to the empire, but had no means to suppress it.(The Habsburg Empire lost large territories in the early 19th century /Flanders and Luxemburg/, and lost most of its Italian holdings a little later, so many members of the Austrian political elite (Franz Joseph I of Austria himself, Archduke Albrecht, Duke of Teschen, major general Ferdinand Franz Xaver Johann Freiherr Mayerhofer von Grünbühel for example)^[26]) dreamed about Eastern land grabs.^[27]^[28])

As a consequence of the Franco-Austrian War, and the Austro-Prussian War the Habsburg Empire was on the verge of collapse in 1866.

"In 1848 the state's financial needs accelerated and it began to issue its own paper money. The result of these issues was so inflationary that the national bank could no longer maintain the convertibility of the gulden into silver. In foreign exchange markets the Austrian gulden became a floating currency whose value was determined by the forces of supply and demand... The reestablishment of the gulden's convertibility into silver and the restoration of monetary stability became goals of successive finance ministers in the 1850s and 1860s. These efforts, however, were thwarted by the Empire's inability to avoid military conflict and the accompanying pressures for monetary expansion that this generated." in: David F. Good: The Economic Rise of the Habsburg Empire, 1750-1914. 1984. p.82.

The Habsburgs were forced to reconcile with Hungary, to save their empire and dynasty. The Habsburgs and part of the Hungarian political elite arranged the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, despite the fact that the overwhelming majority of the populace wanted full independence. The Compromise was arranged and legitimated by a very small part of the Hungarian society (suffrage was very limited: less than 8 percent of the population had voting rights), and was seen by a very large part of the population as betrayal of the Hungarian cause and the heritage of the 1848-49 War of Independence. This caused deep and lasting cracks in Hungarian society. Academic science remained under state scrutiny and pressure, and press remained under (albeit more permissive) censorship. Matters of nation, language, national origin remained politically sensitive themes, and Turkism remained popular.

"However, to get the Compromise accepted within the society posed serious difficulties. Many counties (for example Heves, Pest, Szatmár) rejected the Compromise and stood up for Kossuth, the opposition organized a network of Democratic circles, on the Great Hungarian Plain anti-government and anti-Compromise demonstrations of several thousand men took place, etc. The government, suspending its liberal principles, decided to take firm counter moves: imprisoned László Böszörményi who published the Kossuth letters, banned the Democratic circles, sent a royal commissioner to the most resistant Heves County. The stabilization of the system and the admittance of new political institutions, however, still dragged on for years."

"Viszont a kiegyezés elfogadtatása a társadalommal, komoly nehézségekbe ütközött. Több megye (például Heves, Pest, Szatmár) elutasította a kiegyezést és kiállt Kossuth mellett, az ellenzék megszervezte a demokrata körök hálózatát, az Alföldön többezres kormány- és kiegyezés-ellenes népgyűlésekre került sor stb. A kormány, felfüggesztve liberális elveit, határozott ellenlépésekre szánta el magát: bebörtönözte a Kossuth levelit közlő Böszörményi Lászlót, betiltotta a demokrata köröket, a leginkább ellenálló Heves megyébe pedig királyi biztost küldött. A rendszer stabilizálása és az új politikai intézmények elfogadása azonban még így is évekig elhúzódott." in: Cieger András: Kormány a mérlegen - a múlt században.^[29]

Ármin Vámbéry's work

Vámbéry started his second journey into Asia in July of 1861 with the approval and monetary help of the Akadémia and its president, Dessewffy Emil gróf. After a long and perilous journey he arrived at Pest in May of 1864. He went to London to arrange the English language publication of his book about the travels. "Travels in Central Asia" and its Hungarian counterpart "Közép-ázsiai utazás" were published in 1865. Thanks to his travels Vámbéry became an internationally renowned writer and celebrity. He became acquainted with members of British social elite. The Ambassador of Austria in London gave him a letter of recommendation to the Emperor, who received him in an audience and rewarded Vámbéry's international success by granting him professorship in the Royal University of Pest.^[30]

Vámbéry published his "Vámbéry Ármin vázlatai Közép-Ázsiából. Ujabb adalékok az oxusmelléki országok népismereti, társadalmi és politikai viszonyaihoz." in 1868. Perhaps this was the first instance of the use of the word "turáni" in a Hungarian language scientific text.

At the beginning of Hungarian Turanism, some of its notable promoters and researchers, like Ármin Vámbéry, Vilmos Hevesy,^[31]^[32] and Ignác Goldziher^[33]^[34] were Jewish or of Jewish descent (Vámbéry was neither proud nor ashamed of his Jewish ancestry, he became a member of the Reformed Church, and considered himself Hungarian).

Vámbéry was a key figure in the development of Turanism, and in the development of the "scientific consciousness" of the general public. He was a talented writer: he presented serious scientific matters in an interesting, readable manner. His enjoyable books and other writings, presenting customs, traditions and culture of far-flung peoples and faraway places were key in raising wide public interest in ethnography, ethnology and history. In fact, the power of his books, coupled with the widespread disillusionment about the political elite turned public attention to the lower classes and peasantry, as better heirs and keepers of real Hungarian legacy.(The neologists of the first half of the 19th century had turned towards folklore, myths, ballads and tales in their search of a new national literary style, but had not had interest in other aspects of rural peasant life.)

Vámbéry's later work, entitled "Magyar és török-tatár szóegyezések."^[35] and published in 1869-70, was the casus belli of the "Ugor-török háború" ("Ugric-Turk War"), which started as a scientific dispute, but quickly turned into a long-lasting (it raged for two decades) bitter feud. In this work Vámbéry tried to prove with the help of word comparisons, that as a result of intermingling of the early Hungarians with Turkic peoples, the Hungarian language got a distinct dual (Ugric AND Turkic) character, albeit it is basically Ugric in origin, so he presented a variant of linguistic contact theory.

"...the Hungarian language is Ugric in its origin, but because the nations later contact and historical transformation it is equally Ugric and Turkic in character..."

"...a magyar nyelv eredetében ugor, de a nemzet későbbi érintkezése és történeti átalakulásánál fogva egyformán ugor és török jellemű..." in: Vámbéry Ármin: Magyar és török-tatár szóegyezések. p. 120.

The "Ugric-Turkic War"

"The fight, which my fanatical opponents, regrettably, brought over also to the field of personal remarks, lasted quite a long time, but the old Latin proverb was proven once again: Philologi certant, tamen sub judice lis."

"A küzdelem, melyet fanatikus ellenfeleim, sajnos, átvittek a személyeskedés terére is, eltartott jó sokáig, de ezúttal is bevált a régi diák közmondás: Philologi certant, tamen sub judice lis." in: Vámbéry Ármin: Küzdelmeim. Ch. IX. p. 130.

Vámbéry's work was criticized by Finno-Ugrist József Budenz in "Jelentés Vámbéry Ármin magyar-török szóegyezéséről.", published in 1871. Budenz criticised Vámbéry and his work in an aggressive, derogatory style, and questioned Vámbéry's (scientific) honesty and credibility. (Budenz's work was investigated and analysed by a group of modern linguists, and they found it neither as scientific nor as conclusive in the question of the affiliation of Hungarian language, as the author stated.)^[36]

The historian Henrik Marczali, linguist Károly Pozder, linguist József Thúry, anthropologist Aurél Török, and others supported Vámbéry.^[1]^[37]^[38]^[39]

The Finn-Ugrist Pál Hunfalvy widened the front of the "Ugric-Turk War" with his book "Magyarország ethnographiája.",^[40] published in 1876. In this book he stresses the very strong connection between language and nation (p. 48.), tries to prove that the Huns were Finn-Ugric (p. 122.), questions the credibility and origin of the Gestas (p. 295.), concludes that the Huns, Bulgars and Avars were Ugric (p. 393.), mentions, that the Jews are more prolific than other peoples, so the quickly growing number of them presents a real menace for the nation (p. 420.), and stresses what an important and eminent role the Germans played in the development of Hungarian culture and economy(p. 424.).

In his work titled "Vámbéry Ármin: A magyarok eredete. Ethnologiai tanulmány.",^[41] and published in 1882, Vámbéry went a step further, and presented a newer version of his theory, in which he claimed that Hungarian nation and language are basically Turkic in origin, and the Finn-Ugric element in them is a result of later contact and intermingling.

"...I see a compound people in Hungarians, in which not the Finn-Ugric, but the Turkic-Tatar component gives the true core..."

"...a magyarban vegyülék népet látok, a melyben nem finn-ugor, hanem török-tatár elem képezi a tulajdonképeni magvat..." in: Vámbéry Ármin: A magyarok eredete. Ethnologiai tanulmány. Preface. p. VI.

Vámbéry's work was criticized heavily by his Finno-Ugrist opponents. This critique gave rise to the ever-circling myth of the "fish-smelling kinship" and its variants. It should be noted, that no one of the authors has ever given the written source/base of this accusation against the Turanist scientists. In fact no Turanist scientist wrote such things about the Finn-Ugric peoples. In reality it was coined by the Finno-Ugrist Ferdinánd Barna, in his work "Vámbéry Ármin A magyarok eredete czímű műve néhány főbb állításának bírálata." published in 1884. In this work Barna called the Finn-Ugric peoples "a petty, fish fat eating people spending their woeful lives with fish- and easel-catching". Perhaps this was a Freudian slip.

The "Ugric-Turkic War" was never closed properly. This forced scientists to try to harmonize and synthesize the differing theories somehow. This resulted in the development of a complex national mythology. This combined the Asian roots and origins of Magyars with their European present. Turanism got a new meaning: it became the given name of a variant of Orientalism, which researched Asia and its culture in context of Hungarian history and culture.

Turanism was a driving force in the development of Hungarian social sciences, especially linguistics, ethnography, history, archaeology, and Orientalism, and in the development of Hungarian arts, from architecture to applied and decorative arts. Turanist scientists greatly contributed to the development of Hungarian and international science and arts.

This is a short list of Turkist/Turanist scientists and artists, who have left a lasting legacy in Hungarian culture:

Ármin Vámbéry (1832-1913) was the founding father of Hungarian Turkology. He founded Europe’s first Turcology department at the Royal University of Pest (present day Eötvös Loránd University). He was a member of the MTA (Hungarian Academy of Sciences).
János Arany (1817-1882), poet, writer of a large corpus of poems about Hungarian historical past. He supported Vámbéry in the "Ugric-Turkic War". He was a member and secretary general of the MTA.
Ferenc Pulszky (1814-1897), archaeologist, art historian. He was a member of the MTA and the director of Magyar Nemzeti Múzeum (Hungarian National Museum).^[42] He supported Vámbéry in the "Ugric-Turkic War".
Alajos Paikert (1866-1948) Was the founding father of the "Magyar Mezőgazdasági Múzeum" (Museum of Hungarian Agriculture), and one of the founders of the Turan Society.
Béla Széchenyi (1837-1918), traveler and explorer of Asia.^[43]He was a member of the MTA.
Jenő Zichy (1837-1906), traveler and explorer of Asia.^[44]He was a member of the MTA.
Géza Nagy (1855-1915), archaeologist, ethnographer.^[14]^[45]He was a member of the MTA.
Henrik Marczali (1856-1940), historian.^[14]He was a member of the MTA.
Sándor Márki (1853-1925), historian.^[14]He was a member of the MTA.
Lajos Lóczy (1849-1920), geologist, geographer.^[14]He was a member of the MTA.
Jenő Cholnoky (1870-1950), geographer.^[14]He was a member of the MTA.
Vilmos Pröhle (1871-1946), Orientalist, linguist, one of the first researchers of Chinese and Japanese language and literature in Hungary.^[14]^[46]
Benedek Baráthosi Balogh (1870-1945), Orientalist, ethnographer, traveler.^[47]
Gyula Sebestyén (1864-1946), folklorist, ethnographer.^[14]He was a member of the MTA.
Ferenc Zajti (1886-1961), Orientalist, painter. He was the founder of the Magyar Indiai Társaság ( Hungarian India Society). He arranged Rabindranáth Tagore's visit to Hungary in 1926.^[48]^[49]
József Huszka (1854-1934), art teacher, ethnographer.^[14]
Aladár Körösfői-Kriesch (1863-1920), painter, sculptor, artisan, art theorist, one of the founders of the Gödöllő artists' colony, a leading figure of the Hungarian Arts & Crafts movement.^[14]
Ödön Lechner (1845-1914), architect, who created a new national architectural style from the elements of Hungarian folk art, Persian, Sassanian and Indian art.^[14]
Károly Kós (1883-1977), architect, writer, graphic artist, a leading figure of the Hungarian Arts & Crafts movement.^[14]

The idea of a Hungarian Oriental Institute originated from Zichy Jenő.^[50] Unfortunately, this idea did not come true. Instead, a kind of lyceum was formed in 1910, called "Turáni Társaság" (The Hungarian Turan Society (also called The Hungarian Asiatic Society)). The Turan society concentrated on Turan as geographic location where the ancestors of Hungarians might had lived.

"The goal of Turanian Society is the cultural and economic progress, confederation, flourishment of all Turanians, i.e. the Hungarian nation and all kindred European and Asian nations, furthermore the geographical, ethnographical, economical etc. research of the Asian continent, past and present. Political and religious issues are excluded. It wishes to accomplish its objectives in agreement with non-Turanian nations."

"Turáni Társaság célja az egész turánság, vagyis a magyar nemzet és a velünk rokon többi európai és ázsiai népek kulturális és gazdasági előrehaladása, tömörülése, erősödése, úgymint az ázsiai kontinens földrajzi, néprajzi, gazdasági stb. kutatása múltban és jelenben. Politikai és felekezeti kérdések kizártak. Céljait a nem turáni népekkel egyetértve óhajtja elérni."^[51]

The scholars of the Turan society interpreted the ethnic and linguistic kinship and relations between Hungarians and the so-called Turanian peoples on the basis of the then prevailing Ural-Altaic linguistic theory. The Society arranged Turkish, Finnish and Japanese language courses. The Turan Society arranged and funded five expeditions into Asia till 1914.(The Mészáros-Milleker expedition, the Timkó expedition, the Milleker expedition, the Kovács-Holzwarth expedition, and the Sebők-Schutz expedition.) The Society held public lectures regularly. Lecturers included `Abdu'l-Bahá^[52] and Shuho Chiba.^[53] After the outbreak of First World War politics ensnarled the work of the Society. In 1916, the Turan Society was redressed into the "Magyar Keleti Kultúrközpont" (Hungarian Eastern Cultural Centre), and direct governmental influence over its operation grew.^[1]^[54] The defeat in the Ist World War, and the following revolutionary movements and Entente occupation of the country disrupted the operation of the Eastern Cultural Centre, so real work began only in 1920. But the organisation was split into three that year, because of pronounced internal ideological stresses. Those who wanted a more scincelike approach formed the "Kőrösi Csoma-Társaság" (Kőrösi Csoma Society). The more radical political turanists left the Turan Society, and formed the "Magyarországi Turán Szövetség" (Turan Federation of Hungary).

In 1920, Archduke Joseph Francis of Austria (Archduke Joseph Francis Habsburg) became the first patron of the Hungarian Turan Society^[55]^{[need quotation to verify]}

Political Turanism

The mechanism of successful propaganda may be roughly summed up as follows. Men accept the propagandist's theology or political theory, because it apparently justifies and explains the sentiments and desires evoked in them by the circumstances. The theory may, of course, be completely absurd from a scientific point of view, but this is of no importance so long as men believe it to be true.^[56]

The movement received impetus after Hungary's defeat in World War I. Under the terms of the Treaty of Trianon (1920.VI.4.), the new Hungarian state constituted only 32,7 percent of the territory of historic, pre-treaty Hungary, and lost 58,4 percent of its total population. More than 3,2 million ethnic Hungarians, one-third of all Hungarians resided outside the new boundaries of Hungary, in the successor states, under oppressive conditions. Old Hungarian cities of great cultural importance like Pozsony, Kassa, Kolozsvár were lost. Under these circumstances no Hungarian government could survive without seeking justice for Magyars and Hungary. Reuniting the Magyars became a crucial point in public life and on the political agenda. Public sentiment became strongly anti-Western, anti-French, and anti-British. Outrage led many to reject Europe and turn towards the East in search of new friends and allies in a bid to revise the terms of the treaty and restore Hungarian power.

"Disappointment towards Europe caused by "the betrayal of the West in Trianon," and the pessimistic feeling of loneliness, led different strata in society towards Turanism. They tried to look for friends, kindred peoples and allies in the East so that Hungary could break out of its isolation and regain its well deserved position among the nations. A more radical group of conservative, rightist people, sometimes even with an anti-Semitic hint propagated sharply anti-Western views and the superiority of Eastern culture, the necessity of a pro-Eastern policy, and development of the awareness of Turanic racialism among Hungarian people.” in: Uhalley, Stephen and Wu, Xiaoxin eds.: China and Christianity. Burdened Past, Hopeful Future. 2001. p. 219.^[57]

In Transylvania, "Turanist ethnographers and folklorists privileged the peasants' cultural 'uniqueness', locating a cultural essence of Magyarness in everything from fishing hooks and methods of animal husbandry to ritual folk songs, archaic, 'individualistic' dances, spicy dishes and superstitions."^[58] According to the historian Krisztián Ungváry "With the awakening of Hungarian nationalism at the beginning of the 20th century, the question became topical again. The elite wanted to see itself as a military nation.The claims of certain linguistic researchers regarding the Finno-Ugric relationship were therefore strongly rejected, because many found the idea that their nation was related to a peaceful farming people (the Finns) as insulting...The extremist Turanians insisted on “ties of ancestry” with the Turkish peoples, Tibet, Japan and even the Sumerians, and held the view that Jesus was not a Jew but a Hungarian or a “noble of Parthia”."^[59]

Turanism and Hungarian fascism

The leader of the Hungarian fascist Arrow Cross Party, Ferenc Szálasi, believed in the existence of a distinct Turanid Hungarian race (which included Jesus Christ). The idea was a key part of his ideology of "Hungarism".^[60]

In Hungary some fascists (and non-fascists) tried to link the ancestors of the Hungarians to Timur, the Ottomans and Japan, which some Hungarians of the 1930s described as the 'other sword of Turan' (the first sword being Hungary).

While some Hungarian Turanists went as far as to argue they were racially healthier than and superior to other Europeans (including Germans, who were already corrupted by Judaism), others felt more modestly, that as Turanians living in Europe, they might provide an important bridge between East and West and thus play a role in world politics out of proportion of their numbers or the size of their country. This geopolitical argument was taken to absurd extremes by Ferenc Szálasi, head of the Arrow Cross-Hungarist movement, who believed that, owing to their unique historical and geographical position, Hungarians might play a role equal to, or even more important than, Germany in building the new European order, while Szálasi's own charisma might eventually help him supersede Hitler as leader of the international movement.^[61]

Turanist belief-systems after 1989

Christian Turanists

A Hungarian non-commissioned officer Ferenc Jós Badiny wrote his book ( Jézus Király, a pártus herceg) "King Jesus, the Parthian prince" , where he invented the theory of Jesus the Parthian warrior prince. Many Christian Hungarian Turanists held the view that Jesus Christ was not a Jew but a proto-Hungarian or a “noble of Parthia”.^[59]^{[need quotation to verify]} The theory of “Jesus, the Parthian prince” are such, or the revivification of real or supposed elements of priest-magicians of ancient “magic” Middle-Eastern world, shamanism, and pagan ancient Hungarian religion. Also some muslim Turkish Turanists held the view that Muhammad was not an Arab but a Sumerian, and Sumerians are Turanid according to Turanist theses. It is an opportunity for the Christian Turanists to link Jesus Christ to the ancient middle-eastern mystery and the ancient pagan Hungarian beliefs. Both Catholic and Protestant religious leaders of Hungary acted against this theory and beliefs.^[62]^{[need quotation to verify]}

The right-wing Jobbik party and its president Gábor Vona are uncompromising supporters of Turanism and Pan-Turkism (The ideology of Jobbik considers Hungarians as a Turkic nation.)^[63]^{[dead link]}

The Habsburg conspiracy theory

The Habsburg conspiracy theory is very popular amongst political Turanists, which was invented only in the 1970s.^[64]^{[need quotation to verify]} According to the myth, the Habsburgs envied the glorius Turanian past and "ancestry" of the Hungarian nation, therefore Habsburgs created a plan to hide it from the Hungarian and European public opinion. In the reality, it was Emperor Francis Joseph who used his political prestige to give an university cathedra (as professor) for Ármin Vámbéry, the leaders of Hungarian turanists.^[65]^[66]^{[need quotation to verify]}

Kurultáj

The Kurultáj is a Turanian tribal meeting based on the "common roots" of some Central Asian people. It is also a popular tourist attraction in Hungary (from late 2000s) and Central Asia. The first Kurultáj was in Kazakhstan in 2007 and the last one was organized in 2012 at Bugac, Hungary.^[67]^[68]

In the 1990s a well developed souvenir and merchandise business has grown around Turanism, traditionalist and historical reenactment groups, which is quite similar to other well known international examples of business of this kind. According to the opinion of Hungarian researcher Igaz Levente this merchandise industry grown around modern Hungarian Turanism became a kind of business, which he called "Szittya biznisz" (Scythian business), and it has not got much to do with ancient Hungarian traditions.^[69]

References

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^ http://www.britannica.com/bps/search?query=turanism
^ Andrew C. János: The Politics of Backwardness in Hungary, 1825-1945. 1982. p.275.
^ "turanizmus". lexikon.katolikus.hu [Magyar Katolikus Lexikon (Hungarian Catholic Lexicon)]. Retrieved 7 March 2014.
^ Györffy, György (1983) István király és műve. Gondolat Könyvkiadó, Budapest, p. 252.
^ Kovácsné Csányi Bernadett: Honfoglalás kori, valamint magyar és székely populációk apai ági genetikai kapcsolatrendszerének vizsgálata. http://www2.sci.u-szeged.hu/fokozatok/PDF/Kovacsne_Csanyi_Bernadett/tezisfuzet_magyar_csanyiB.pdf
^ Mende Balázs Gusztáv: Archeogenetika és a honfoglalás kor népességtörténete: új módszer – régi problémák. http://www.matud.iif.hu/08okt/03.html
^ Péter Hajdú, Ancient culture of the Uralian peoples, Corvina, 1976, p. 134
^ Zimonyi István: A magyarság korai történetének sarokpontjai. Elméletek az újabb irodalom tükrében. 2012. http://real-d.mtak.hu/597/7/dc_500_12_doktori_mu.pdf
^ Radoslav Katičić: A contribution to the general theory of comparative linguistics. 1970. p.10.
^ https://archive.org/details/languagesseatwa00mlgoog
^ Anonymus: Gesta Hungarorum. http://mek.oszk.hu/02200/02245/02245.htm
^ Kézai Simon mester Magyar krónikája. http://mek.oszk.hu/02200/02249/02249.htm
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l Magyar Életrajzi Lexikon. http://mek.oszk.hu/00300/00355/html/index.html
^ "...amikor Kőrösi elindult a magyarok őshazáját és a ‘hátramaradt magyarokat’ megkeresni, úgy vélte, azokra valahol Közép-Ázsiában, illetve az ujgurok között bukkanhat rá..."http://csoma.mtak.hu/hu/csoma-elete.htm
^ Philipp Johann von Strahlenberg: An historico-geographical description of the north and east parts of Europe and Asia http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/010825073
^ Herman Ottó: Petényi J. S. a magyar tudományos madártan megalapítója. http://mek.oszk.hu/12100/12102/12102.pdf
^ BUZINKAY GÉZA: A magyar irodalom és sajtó irányítása a Bach-korszakban. http://epa.oszk.hu/00000/00021/00290/pdf/MKSZ_EPA00021_1974_90_03-04_269-293.pdf
^ Csohány János: Leo Thun egyházpolitikája. In: Egyháztörténeti Szemle. 11/2. 2010. http://www.uni-miskolc.hu/~egyhtort/cikkek/csohany-thun.htm
^ http://janus.ttk.pte.hu/tamop/tananyagok/tort_tan_valt/az_entwurf_hatsa_a_trtnelemtantsra.html
^ Bolvári-Takács Gábor: Teleki József, Sárospatak és az Akadémia. http://www.zemplenimuzsa.hu/05_2/btg.htm
^ http://tmt.omikk.bme.hu/show_news.html?id=3135&issue_id=390
^ http://epa.oszk.hu/00000/00030/00251/pdf/VU-1858_05_51_12_19.pdf
^ http://mek.oszk.hu/00300/00355/html/
^ Vámbéry Ármin: Küzdelmeim. 1905.http://mek.oszk.hu/03900/03975/03975.pdf
^ KOS, Franz Josef: Die Politik Österreich-Ungarns während der Okkupationskrise 1874/75-1879. Böhlau, Köln-Wien, 1984,p.42, p.51.
^ http://www.tankonyvtar.hu/hu/tartalom/historia/95-01/ch08.html
^ http://staff.lib.msu.edu/sowards/balkan/lect10.htm
^ Cieger András: Kormány a mérlegen - a múlt században.http://c3.hu/scripta/szazadveg/14/cieger.htm
^ Vámbéry Ármin: Küzdelmeim. 1905.http://mek.oszk.hu/03900/03975/03975.pdf
^ http://mtda.hu/books/zajti_ferenc_magyar_evezredek.pdf
^ http://mek.oszk.hu/09300/09396/html/01.htm
^ Paul Hanebrink: Islam, Anti-Communism, and Christian Civilization: The Ottoman Menace in Interwar Hungary, Cambridge Journals
^ Steven Totosy de Zepetnek, Louise O. Vasvari: Comparative Hungarian Cultural Studies (page:48)
^ Vámbéry Ármin: Magyar és török-tatár szóegyezések." In Nyelvtudományi közlemények VIII. p. 109-189.http://www.nytud.hu/nyk/reg/008.pdf
^ ANGELA MARCANTONIO, PIRJO NUMMENAHO, MICHELA SALVAGNI: THE ”UGRIC-TURKIC BATTLE”: A CRITICAL REVIEW. http://www.kirj.ee/public/va_lu/l37-2-1.pdf
^ Thúry József: Az ugor-magyar theoria. 1. rész. 1884. http://epa.oszk.hu/02300/02392/00030/pdf/EPA02392_egy_phil_kozl_08_1884_02_131-158.pdf
^ Thúry József: Az ugor-magyar theoria. 2. rész. 1884. http://epa.oszk.hu/02300/02392/00031/pdf/EPA02392_egy_phil_kozl_08_1884_03-04_295-311.pdf
^ Thúry József: Az ugor-magyar theoria. 3. rész. 1884. http://epa.oszk.hu/02300/02392/00032/pdf/EPA02392_egy_phil_kozl_08_1884_05_416-440.pdf
^ Hunfalvy Pál: Magyarország ethnographiája. http://www.fszek.hu/mtda/Hunfalvy-Magyarorszag_ethnographiaja.pdf
^ Vámbéry Ármin: A magyarok eredete. Ethnologiai tanulmány.1882.http://digitalia.lib.pte.hu/?p=3265
^ http://mek.oszk.hu/00300/00355/html/ABC11587/12489.htm
^ http://mek.oszk.hu/05300/05389/pdf/Loczy_Szechenyi_emlekezete.pdf
^ http://mek.oszk.hu/00300/00355/html/ABC17155/17265.htm
^ http://epa.oszk.hu/01600/01614/00002/pdf/nyjame_02_1959_051-061.pdf
^ http://kcst.hu/keletkutatas/Keletkutatas_2012-tavasz.pdf
^ http://www.neprajz.hu/bbb/coll.htm
^ SZABÓ Lilla: Zajti Ferenc festőművész és Medgyaszay István építész magyarságkutatásai. in: Kultúra, nemzet, identitás. A VI. Nemzetközi Hungarológiai Kongresszuson (Debrecen, 2006. augusztus 23–26.) elhangzott előadások. 2011.http://mek.oszk.hu/09300/09396/09396.pdf
^ http://terebess.hu/keletkultinfo/lexikon/zajti.html
^ Vincze Zoltán: Létay Balázs, a magyar asszirológia legszebb reménye http://www.muvelodes.ro/index.php/Cikk?id=155
^ "http://mtdaportal.extra.hu/books/teleki_pal_a_turani_tarsasag.pdf
^ http://www.bahai.hu/a-bahai-hit/magyarorszagi-tortenet/abdul-baha-budapesten/#id%C3%81PRILIS_9_SZERDA
^ http://epa.oszk.hu/00000/00030/03094/pdf/VU_EPA00030_1913_11.pdf
^ http://www.muvelodes.ro/index.php/Cikk?id=155
^ http://www.tankonyvtar.hu/hu/tartalom/tkt/ostortenet-nemzettudat/ch07.html
^ Aldous Huxley: Writers and Readers. 1936.
^ Uhalley, Stephen and Wu, Xiaoxin eds.: China and Christianity. Burdened Past, Hopeful Future. 2001. p. 219.
^ László Kürti The Remote Borderland: Transylvania in the Hungarian Imagination, SUNY Press, 2001, p.97
^ ^a ^b See Ungváry
^ Stanley Payne A History of Fascism, 1914-1945 (University of Wisconsin Press, 1995) pp.272-274
^ Andrew C. Janos East Central Europe in the Modern World Stanford University Press, 2002 pp.185-186
^ http://hetivalasz.hu/english_periscope/shamans-in-the-pantry-25940
^ http://www.jobbik.com/jobbik_news/europe/3198.html
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^ http://www.nyest.hu/renhirek/akiknek-el-akarjak-venni-a-multjukat
^ Kurultaj official website
^ http://www.politics.hu/20120810/deputy-house-speaker-greets-asian-ethnic-groups-in-parliament/
^ Barna Borbas (05.05.13). "Élet a szittya bizniszen túl – utak a magyar hagyományőrzésben" (in Hungarian). Heti Valasz. Retrieved 10.05.13. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
+{{Multiple issues|
 {{lead rewrite|date=March 2014}}
+{{over-quotation|date=May 2014}}
-'''Hungarian Turanism''' ({{lang-hu|Turánizmus or Turanizmus}}) is a [[Pseudoscience|pseudo-scientific]],<ref name="Vagi">Zoltán Vági, László Csősz, Gábor Kádár, [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QTvUAAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Holocaust+in+Hungary:+Evolution+of+a+Genocide,&hl=en&sa=X&ei=bPMZU_6KOo_X7AbQiIGQCw&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Holocaust%20in%20Hungary%3A%20Evolution%20of%20a%20Genocide%2C&f=false The Holocaust in Hungary: Evolution of a Genocide], AltaMira Press, 2013, p. 34, ISBN 9780759122000</ref> [[nationalism|nationalist]] political ideology, which emphasizes the alleged origins of the Hungarian people in [[Central Asia]] and [[Inner Asia]] ("[[Turan]]") and the affinity and shared origin of the Hungarians with Asian peoples such as the [[Turkic peoples]], [[Huns]] etc.<ref name="Farkas">{{cite news|url = http://www.valosagonline.hu/index.php?oldal=cikk&cazon=904&lap=0|title=Ildikó Farkas, A magyar turanizmus török kapcsolatai ("The Turkish connections of Hungarian Turanism")|publisher=www.valosagonline.hu [Valóság (2013 I.-IV)]|year=2013|accessdate=7 March 2014}}</ref> emphasized “ties of ancestry” with the Tibetan, Japanese, and Korean peoples or the ancient [[Sumer]]ians, [[Parthian Empire|Parthian people]]<ref> [[Krisztián Ungváry]]: Turanism: the ‘new’ ideology of the far right.| http://www.budapesttimes.hu/2012/02/05/turanism-the-new-ideology-of-the-far-right/</ref> and Mongol people.<ref>http://www.ceu.hu/event/2014-05-28/neo-turanism-and-its-performance-everyday-geopolitics-hungarian-far-right</ref> Its ideas contradict each other. It was a loosely defined and diverse multidisciplinary scientific and political movement, which has been most lively in the second half of the 19th century and in the first half of the 20th century. Hungarian Turanism has been based on an ancient tradition that places the Hungarians' ancestral homeland in Asia. <ref name="Farkas">{{cite news|url = http://www.valosagonline.hu/index.php?oldal=cikk&cazon=904&lap=0|title=Ildikó Farkas, A magyar turanizmus török kapcsolatai ("The Turkish connections of Hungarian Turanism")|publisher=www.valosagonline.hu [Valóság (2013 I.-IV)]|year=2013|accessdate=7 March 2014}}</ref>
+}}
+'''Hungarian Turanism''' ({{lang-hu|Turánizmus or Turanizmus}}) is a loosely defined and diverse multidisciplinary scientific and political movement, which has been most lively in the second half of the 19th century and in the first half of the 20th century. Hungarian Turanism has been based on an ancient tradition that places the Hungarians' ancestral homeland in Asia. <ref name="Farkas">{{cite news|url = http://www.valosagonline.hu/index.php?oldal=cikk&cazon=904&lap=0|title=Ildikó Farkas, A magyar turanizmus török kapcsolatai ("The Turkish connections of Hungarian Turanism")|publisher=www.valosagonline.hu [Valóság (2013 I.-IV)]|year=2013|accessdate=7 March 2014}}</ref>
 As a scientific movement, Turanism was concerned with the research of Asia and its culture in context of Hungarian history and culture. It was embodied and represented by many scholars who had shared premises (i.e. the Asian origin of the Hungarians, and their kinship with Asian peoples), and arrived at the same or very similar conclusions. Turanism was a driving force in the development of Hungarian social sciences, especially linguistics, archaeology and Orientalism.
-Political Turanism was born in the 19th century, in response to the growing influence of [[Pan-Germanism]] and [[Pan-Slavism]], seen by Hungarians as very dangerous to the state and nation of Hungary, because the country had large ethnic German and Slavic populations.<ref name="Farkas"/> Political Turanism was a romantic nationalist movement, which accentuated the importance of common ancestry and cultural affinity of the Hungarians with the peoples of the Caucasus, Inner and Central Asia, like the Turks, Mongols, Parsi etc., and called for closer collaboration and political alliance with them, as a means of securing and furthering shared interests, and to counter the imminent threats posed by the policies of Western powers like Germany, the British Empire, France and Russia. The idea of the necessity for "Turanian brotherhood and collaboration" was borrowed from the "Slavic brotherhood and collaboration" idea of [[Panslavism]].<ref>http://www.britannica.com/bps/search?query=turanism</ref> After the First World War, political Turanism played a minor role in the formation of Hungarian far right ideologies.
+Political Turanism was born in the 19th century, in response to the growing influence of [[Pan-Germanism]] and [[Pan-Slavism]], seen by Hungarians as very dangerous to the state and nation of Hungary, because the country had large ethnic German and Slavic populations.<ref name="Farkas"/> Political Turanism was a romantic nationalist movement, which accentuated the importance of common ancestry and cultural affinity of the Hungarians with the peoples of the Caucasus, Inner and Central Asia, like the Turks, Mongols, Parsi etc., and called for closer collaboration and political alliance with them, as a means of securing and furthering shared interests, and to counter the imminent threats posed by the policies of Western powers like Germany, the British Empire, France and Russia. The idea of the necessity for "Turanian brotherhood and collaboration" was borrowed from the "Slavic brotherhood and collaboration" idea of [[Pan-slavism]].<ref>http://www.britannica.com/bps/search?query=turanism</ref> After the First World War, political Turanism played a minor role in the formation of Hungarian far right ideologies.
 "While Turanism was and remained little more than a fringe ideology of the Right, the second orientation of the national socialists, pan-Europaism, had a number of adherents, and was adopted as the platform of several national socialist groups." in: Andrew C. János: ''The Politics of Backwardness in Hungary'', 1825-1945. 1982. p.275.<ref>Andrew C. János: ''The Politics of Backwardness in Hungary'', 1825-1945. 1982. p.275.</ref>
@@ Line 14: / Line 17: @@
 "''Magyarországon az 1944-ben uralomra jutott Nemzetszocialista Párt több tételt átvett a turanizmus eszmeköréből, aminek következtében a turanizmus népszerűsége erősen lecsökkent, majd a szocializmusban „fasisztává” minősült.''" in: Magyar Katolikus Lexikon. Turanizmus.
-The [[Hungarian people|Hungarians]] were (semi-)nomads<ref>Györffy, György (1983) ''István király és műve''. Gondolat Könyvkiadó, Budapest, p. 252.</ref> before [[Hungarian Conquest of the Carpathian Basin|the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin]] and their culture was similar to other steppe peoples. Most scientists presume a [[Hungarian prehistory#The Hungarian Urheimat|Uralic homeland of ancient Hungarian conquerors]] (mainly on linguistic grounds, and on the base of limited genetic researches carried out recently on a very limited number of ancient skeletons, found in graves from the age of the Conquest). The present-day Hungarian state, and also the ancient Hungarian tribes were situated in the [[Eurasian steppe]] belt,<ref>Péter Hajdú, Ancient culture of the Uralian peoples, Corvina, 1976, p. 134</ref>  therefore, the [[Hungarian prehistory#Emergence from the Ugric speakers|ancient relations of the Hungarians]] and their interactions with other equestrian nomadic peoples are still debated issues.
+The [[Hungarian people|Hungarians]] were (semi-)nomads<ref>Györffy, György (1983) ''István király és műve''. Gondolat Könyvkiadó, Budapest, p. 252.</ref> before [[Hungarian Conquest of the Carpathian Basin|the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin]] and their culture was similar to other steppe peoples. Most scientists presume a [[Hungarian prehistory#The Hungarian Urheimat|Uralic homeland of ancient Hungarian conquerors]] (mainly on linguistic grounds, and on the base of limited genetic researches carried out recently on a very limited number of ancient skeletons, found in graves from the age of the Conquest<ref>Kovácsné Csányi Bernadett: Honfoglalás kori, valamint magyar és székely populációk apai ági genetikai kapcsolatrendszerének vizsgálata. http://www2.sci.u-szeged.hu/fokozatok/PDF/Kovacsne_Csanyi_Bernadett/tezisfuzet_magyar_csanyiB.pdf</ref><ref>Mende Balázs Gusztáv: Archeogenetika és a honfoglalás kor népességtörténete: új módszer – régi problémák. http://www.matud.iif.hu/08okt/03.html</ref>). The proto-Hungarian tribes were situated in the Eurasiatic [[forest steppe]] zone,<ref>Péter Hajdú, Ancient culture of the Uralian peoples, Corvina, 1976, p. 134</ref>  therefore, the [[Hungarian prehistory#Emergence from the Ugric speakers|ancient relations of the Hungarians]] and their interactions with other equestrian nomadic peoples are still debated issues.<ref>Zimonyi István: A magyarság korai történetének sarokpontjai. Elméletek az újabb irodalom tükrében. 2012. http://real-d.mtak.hu/597/7/dc_500_12_doktori_mu.pdf</ref>
 ==Its roots, origins, and development==
@@ Line 20: / Line 23: @@
 ===The beginnings===
+{{cquote|It is a well-known fact that the marked interest in the genetic classification of languages prevailing in the last century and at the beginning of the present one has its roots in European nationalisms. The exact knowledge of dialects and languages was supposed to strengthen the national individuality and to align nations in ‘natural’ alliances. <ref> Radoslav Katičić: A contribution to the general theory of comparative linguistics. 1970. p.10.</ref>}}
 [[File:Max Müller's Northern Division of Turanian Languages.png|thumb|180px|right|Friedrich Max Müller's Northern Division of
@@ Line 27: / Line 31: @@
 Hungarians have had a thousand year old, and still living tradition about the Asian origins of Magyars. This tradition was preserved in medieval chronicles (such as [[Gesta Hungarorum]]<ref>Anonymus: Gesta Hungarorum. http://mek.oszk.hu/02200/02245/02245.htm</ref> and [[Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum]]<ref>Kézai Simon mester
-Magyar krónikája. http://mek.oszk.hu/02200/02249/02249.htm</ref>) as early as the 13th century. This tradition served as starting point for the scientific research of  the ethnogenesis of Hungarian people, which began in the 18th century, in Hungary and abroad. [[Sándor Kőrösi Csoma]] (the writer of the first Tibetan-English dictionary) traveled to Asia in the strong belief that he could find the kindred of Magyars in Turkestan, amongst the [[Uyghur people|Uyghurs]].<ref name="mek.oszk.hu">http://mek.oszk.hu/00300/00355/html/index.html</ref>
+Magyar krónikája. http://mek.oszk.hu/02200/02249/02249.htm</ref>) as early as the 13th century. This tradition served as starting point for the scientific research of  the ethnogenesis of Hungarian people, which began in the 18th century, in Hungary and abroad. [[Sándor Kőrösi Csoma]] (the writer of the first Tibetan-English dictionary) traveled to Asia in the strong belief that he could find the kindred of Magyars in Turkestan, amongst the [[Uyghur people|Uyghurs]].<ref name="mek.oszk.hu">Magyar Életrajzi Lexikon. http://mek.oszk.hu/00300/00355/html/index.html</ref>
 "...when Kőrösi set off for the search of the ancient homeland of Magyars and the 'left behind Magyars', he considered that he might find those somewhere in Central Asia, respectively amongst the Uighurs..."<ref>"...amikor Kőrösi elindult a magyarok őshazáját és a ‘hátramaradt magyarokat’ megkeresni, úgy vélte, azokra valahol Közép-Ázsiában, illetve az ujgurok között bukkanhat rá..."http://csoma.mtak.hu/hu/csoma-elete.htm</ref>
@@ Line 37: / Line 41: @@
 "...''következett tehát ebből az a reménységem, hogy Középázsiában az összehasonlító nyelvtudomány segítségével világosságot vető sugarat lelhetek, mely eloszlatja a homályt a magyar őstörténelem sötét tájairól''...." in: Vámbéry Ármin: Küzdelmeim. Ch.IV. p.&nbsp;62.
-The linguistic theories of the Dutch philosopher [[Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn]] and the German thinker [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]] gave the real basis of the modern scientific research of the origin of the Hungarian language and people. Boxhorn conjectured that the European and Indo-Iranian languages were all derived from a shared ancestor language, and he named this ancestor language "Scythian", after the equestrian, nomadic warriors of the Asian steppes. But linguists theorizing about ancestor languages had to deal with the common belief of the era, that, according to the Bible, Hebrew was the original language of all humans. Leibniz published material countering the Biblical theory, and supported Boxhorn's notion of a Scythian ancestor language. Leibniz recognized that the Semitic languages such as Hebrew and Arabic, and some European languages like [[Sami language|Sami]], [[Finnish language|Finnish]], and Hungarian did not belong to the same language family as most of the languages of Europe. He recognized the connection between the Finnish languages and Hungarian. He placed the original homeland of the Hungarians to the Volga-Caspian Sea region.
+The linguistic theories of the Dutch philosopher [[Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn]] and the German thinker [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]] gave the real basis of the modern scientific research of the origin of the Hungarian language and people. Boxhorn conjectured that the European and Indo-Iranian languages were all derived from a shared ancestor language, and he named this ancestor language "Scythian", after the equestrian, nomadic warriors of the Asian steppes. But linguists theorizing about ancestor languages had to deal with the common belief of the era, that, according to the Bible, Hebrew was the original language of all humans. Leibniz published material countering the Biblical theory, and supported Boxhorn's notion of a Scythian ancestor language.
+"Information about hither-to unknown peoples and languages of Asia and the Americas came into the hands of scholars such as Gottfried Leibniz, who recognized that there was no better method “for specifying the relationship and origin of the various peoples of the earth, than the comparison of their languages”. In order to classify as many languages as possible in genealogical groupings, Leibniz proposed that similar materials be collected from each newly-described language. To this end he asked that explorers either obtain translations of well-known Christian prayers such as the Pater Noster, or, better yet, “words for common things” (vocabula rerum vulgarium), a sample list of which he appended to a letter to the Turkologist D. Podesta (Leibniz 1768/1989b).The word list included numerals, kinship terms, body parts, necessitates (food, drink, weapons,domestic animals), naturalia (God, celestial and weather phenomena, topographic features, wild animals) and a dozen verbs (eat, drink, speak, see …). Leibniz took a particular interest in the expansion of the Russian Empire southward and eastward, and lists based on his model were taken on expeditions sent by the tsars to study the territories recently brought under their control, as well as the peoples living on these and on nearby lands." Kevin Tuite: ''The rise and fall and revival of the Ibero-Caucasian hypothesis.'' 2008. in: Historiographia Linguistica, 35 #1; p. 23-82.
+Leibniz recognized that the Semitic languages such as Hebrew and Arabic, and some European languages like [[Sami language|Sami]], [[Finnish language|Finnish]], and Hungarian did not belong to the same language family as most of the languages of Europe. He recognized the connection between the Finnish languages and Hungarian. He placed the original homeland of the Hungarians to the Volga-Caspian Sea region.
 These theories had a great impact on the research of the origins of the Hungarian language and the ethnogenesis of Hungarian nation. Both of the two main views/theories about the origin of the Hungarian people and language, the one about the Turkic origin, and the other about the Finno-Ugric origin had their scientific roots in them.
@@ Line 51: / Line 59: @@
 "...''a Nap vértengerbe áldozott le. Magyarországra a mérhetetlen gyásznak éjszakája borult; legnemesebb erői törve voltak. Még a tudományos intézetek kapui is bezárultak''..." in: Herman Ottó: Petényi J. S. a magyar tudományos madártan megalapítója. p.&nbsp;39.<ref>Herman Ottó: Petényi J. S. a magyar tudományos madártan megalapítója. http://mek.oszk.hu/12100/12102/12102.pdf</ref>
+===The role of the Habsburgs===
+The Habsburgs introduced dictatorial rule, and every aspect of Hungarian life was put under close scrutiny and governmental control. Press and theatrical/public performances were censored.<ref>BUZINKAY GÉZA: A magyar irodalom és sajtó irányítása a
+Bach-korszakban. http://epa.oszk.hu/00000/00021/00290/pdf/MKSZ_EPA00021_1974_90_03-04_269-293.pdf</ref><ref>Csohány János: Leo Thun egyházpolitikája. In: Egyháztörténeti Szemle. 11/2. 2010. http://www.uni-miskolc.hu/~egyhtort/cikkek/csohany-thun.htm</ref>
+„The government of Prime Minister prince Félix von Schwarzenberg, operating since November 1848, pursued radically new imperial policy. It wished to develop a uniform empire in the spirit of the imperial constitution issued by the young Franz Joseph I in Olmütz on 4 March 1849, Hungary's constitution and her territorial integrity were abolished and she became subsumed into the hereditary lands.  After Világos actual military dictatorship was built up on Hungary whose territory was partitioned into crown lands. On 31 December 1851 the Emperor abolished the constitution of 4 March 1849 with an edict, and introduced [[Absolute monarchy|absolutism]] in the empire which was declared to be unified.”
-===The Habsburg conspiracy theory===
+''„Az 1848 novembere óta működő Félix von Schwarzenberg herceg miniszterelnök vezette kormány gyökeresen új birodalmi politikát követett. A fiatal I. Ferenc József által Olmützben, 1849. március 4-én kiadott birodalmi alkotmány szellemében egységes összbirodalmat kívánt kialakítani, Magyarország alkotmányát, területi integritását eltörölték és beosztották az örökös tartományok közé. Világos után tényleges katonai diktatúrát építettek ki a koronatartományokra szabdalt Magyarországon. 1851. december 31-én a császár egy pátenssel eltörölte az 1849. március 4-i alkotmányt, és abszolutizmust vezetett be az egységesnek deklarált birodalomban.”'' Csohány János: Leo Thun egyházpolitikája. In: Egyháztörténeti Szemle. 11/2. 2010.
-The Habsburg conspiracy theory is very popular amongst political Turanists, which was invented only in the 1970s.<ref>http://finnugor.elte.hu/mostort/ostortnyelveszet1.pdf</ref>{{Request quotation|date=April 2014}} According to the myth, the Habsburgs envied the glorius Turanian past and "ancestry" of the Hungarian nation, therefore Habsburgs created a plan to hide it from the Hungarian and European public opinion. In the reality, it was Emperor Francis Joseph who used his political prestige to give an university cathedra (as professor) for Ármin Vámbéry, the leaders of Hungarian turanists.<ref>http://www.tenyleg.com/index.php?action=recordView&type=places&category_id=3115&id=319584</ref><ref>http://www.nyest.hu/renhirek/akiknek-el-akarjak-venni-a-multjukat</ref>
+German became the official language of public administration. The edict issued on 1849.X.9. (Grundsätze für die provisorische Organisation des Unterrichtswesens in dem Kronlande Ungarn), placed education under state control, the curriculum was prescribed and controlled by the state, the education of national history was confined, and history was educated from a Habsburg viewpoint.<ref>http://janus.ttk.pte.hu/tamop/tananyagok/tort_tan_valt/az_entwurf_hatsa_a_trtnelemtantsra.html</ref> Even the bastion of Hungarian culture, the Academy was kept under control: the institution was staffed with foreigners, mostly Germans and ethnic Germans, and the institution was practically defunct until the end of 1858.<ref>Bolvári-Takács Gábor: Teleki József, Sárospatak és az Akadémia. http://www.zemplenimuzsa.hu/05_2/btg.htm</ref><ref>http://tmt.omikk.bme.hu/show_news.html?id=3135&issue_id=390</ref><ref>http://epa.oszk.hu/00000/00030/00251/pdf/VU-1858_05_51_12_19.pdf</ref> Hungarians responded with passive resistance. Questions of nation, language, national origin became politically sensitive matters. Anti-Habsburg and anti-German sentiments were strong. A large number of freedom fighters took refuge in the [[Ottoman Empire]]. This resulted in renewed cultural exchange, and mutual sympathy. Turks were seen by many as good allies of the Hungarian cause. Such was the atmosphere, when Vámbéry traveled to Constantinople in 1857 for the first time.<ref>http://mek.oszk.hu/00300/00355/html/</ref>
-===The role of the Habsburgs===
-The Habsburgs introduced dictatorial rule, and every aspect of Hungarian life was put under close scrutiny and governmental control. Press and theatrical/public performances were censored.<ref>BUZINKAY GÉZA: A magyar irodalom és sajtó irányítása a
-Bach-korszakban. http://epa.oszk.hu/00000/00021/00290/pdf/MKSZ_EPA00021_1974_90_03-04_269-293.pdf</ref>  German became the official language of public administration. The edict issued on 1849.X.9. (Grundsätze für die provisorische Organisation des Unterrichtswesens in dem Kronlande Ungarn), placed education under state control, the curriculum was prescribed and controlled by the state, the education of national history was confined, and history was educated from a Habsburg viewpoint.<ref>http://janus.ttk.pte.hu/tamop/tananyagok/tort_tan_valt/az_entwurf_hatsa_a_trtnelemtantsra.html</ref> Even the bastion of Hungarian culture, the Academy was kept under control: the institution was staffed with foreigners, mostly Germans and ethnic Germans, and the institution was practically defunct until the end of 1858.<ref>http://www.zemplenimuzsa.hu/05_2/btg.htm</ref><ref>http://tmt.omikk.bme.hu/show_news.html?id=3135&issue_id=390</ref><ref>http://epa.oszk.hu/00000/00030/00251/pdf/VU-1858_05_51_12_19.pdf</ref> Hungarians responded with passive resistance. Questions of nation, language, national origin became politically sensitive matters. Anti-Habsburg and anti-German sentiments were strong. A large number of freedom fighters took refuge in the [[Ottoman Empire]]. This resulted in renewed cultural exchange, and mutual sympathy. Turks were seen by many as good allies of the Hungarian cause. Such was the atmosphere, when Vámbéry traveled to Constantinople in 1857 for the first time.<ref>http://mek.oszk.hu/00300/00355/html/</ref>
 "It should happen and it will happen - I encouraged myself with this, and did not hurt me other problems, just this one:  how could I get a passport from the strict and suspicious Austrian authorities, and exactly to Turkey, where the Hungarian emigration resided, and, as was believed in Vienna, made rebellious plans tirelessly."
@@ Line 122: / Line 130: @@
 This is a short list of Turkist/Turanist scientists and artists, who have left a lasting legacy in Hungarian culture:
-*[[Ármin Vámbéry]] (1832-1913) was the founding father of Hungarian [[Turkology]].
+*[[Ármin Vámbéry]] (1832-1913) was the founding father of Hungarian [[Turkology]]. He founded  Europe’s first Turcology  department at the Royal University of Pest (present day [[Eötvös Loránd University]]). He was a member of the MTA ([[Hungarian Academy of Sciences]]).
-*[[János Arany]] (1817-1882), poet, writer of a large corpus of poems about Hungarian historical past. He supported Vámbéry in the "Ugric-Turkic War".
+*[[János Arany]] (1817-1882), poet, writer of a large corpus of poems about Hungarian historical past. He supported Vámbéry in the "Ugric-Turkic War". He was a member and secretary general of the MTA.
-*[[Ferenc Pulszky]] (1814-1897), archaeologist, art historian.<ref>http://mek.oszk.hu/00300/00355/html/ABC11587/12489.htm</ref> He supported Vámbéry in the "Ugric-Turkic War".
+*[[Ferenc Pulszky]] (1814-1897), archaeologist, art historian. He was a member of the MTA and the director of Magyar Nemzeti Múzeum ([[Hungarian National Museum]]).<ref>http://mek.oszk.hu/00300/00355/html/ABC11587/12489.htm</ref> He supported Vámbéry in the "Ugric-Turkic War".
 *Alajos Paikert (1866-1948) Was the founding father of the "Magyar Mezőgazdasági Múzeum" (Museum of Hungarian Agriculture), and one of the founders of the Turan Society.
-*Béla Széchenyi (1837-1918), traveler and explorer of Asia.<ref>http://mek.oszk.hu/05300/05389/pdf/Loczy_Szechenyi_emlekezete.pdf</ref>
+*Béla Széchenyi (1837-1918), traveler and explorer of Asia.<ref>http://mek.oszk.hu/05300/05389/pdf/Loczy_Szechenyi_emlekezete.pdf</ref>He was a member of the MTA.
-*Jenő Zichy (1837-1906), traveler and explorer of Asia.<ref>http://mek.oszk.hu/00300/00355/html/ABC17155/17265.htm</ref>
+*Jenő Zichy (1837-1906), traveler and explorer of Asia.<ref>http://mek.oszk.hu/00300/00355/html/ABC17155/17265.htm</ref>He was a member of the MTA.
-*Géza Nagy (1855-1915), archaeologist, ethnographer.<ref name="mek.oszk.hu"/><ref>http://epa.oszk.hu/01600/01614/00002/pdf/nyjame_02_1959_051-061.pdf</ref>
+*Géza Nagy (1855-1915), archaeologist, ethnographer.<ref name="mek.oszk.hu"/><ref>http://epa.oszk.hu/01600/01614/00002/pdf/nyjame_02_1959_051-061.pdf</ref>He was a member of the MTA.
-*Henrik Marczali (1856-1940), historian.<ref name="mek.oszk.hu"/>
+*Henrik Marczali (1856-1940), historian.<ref name="mek.oszk.hu"/>He was a member of the MTA.
-*Sándor Márki (1853-1925), historian.<ref name="mek.oszk.hu"/>
+*Sándor Márki (1853-1925), historian.<ref name="mek.oszk.hu"/>He was a member of the MTA.
-*Lajos Lóczy (1849-1920), geologist, geographer.<ref name="mek.oszk.hu"/>
+*Lajos Lóczy (1849-1920), geologist, geographer.<ref name="mek.oszk.hu"/>He was a member of the MTA.
-*Cholnoky Jenő (1870-1950), geographer.<ref name="mek.oszk.hu"/>
+*Jenő Cholnoky (1870-1950), geographer.<ref name="mek.oszk.hu"/>He was a member of the MTA.
 *Vilmos Pröhle (1871-1946), Orientalist, linguist, one of the first researchers of Chinese and Japanese language and literature in Hungary.<ref name="mek.oszk.hu"/><ref>http://kcst.hu/keletkutatas/Keletkutatas_2012-tavasz.pdf</ref>
 *Benedek Baráthosi Balogh (1870-1945), Orientalist, ethnographer, traveler.<ref>http://www.neprajz.hu/bbb/coll.htm</ref>
-*Gyula Sebestyén (1864-1946), folklorist, ethnographer.<ref name="mek.oszk.hu"/>
+*Gyula Sebestyén (1864-1946), folklorist, ethnographer.<ref name="mek.oszk.hu"/>He was a member of the MTA.
+*Ferenc Zajti (1886-1961), Orientalist, painter. He was the founder of the Magyar Indiai Társaság ( Hungarian India Society). He arranged Rabindranáth Tagore's visit to Hungary in 1926.<ref>SZABÓ Lilla: Zajti Ferenc festőművész és Medgyaszay István építész magyarságkutatásai. in: Kultúra, nemzet, identitás. A VI. Nemzetközi Hungarológiai Kongresszuson (Debrecen, 2006. augusztus 23–26.) elhangzott előadások. 2011.http://mek.oszk.hu/09300/09396/09396.pdf</ref><ref>http://terebess.hu/keletkultinfo/lexikon/zajti.html</ref>
 *József Huszka (1854-1934), art teacher, ethnographer.<ref name="mek.oszk.hu"/>
 *Aladár Körösfői-Kriesch (1863-1920), painter, sculptor, artisan, art theorist, one of the founders of the [[Gödöllő]] artists' colony, a leading figure of the Hungarian Arts & Crafts movement.<ref name="mek.oszk.hu"/>
+*[[Ödön Lechner]] (1845-1914), architect, who created a new national architectural style from the elements of Hungarian folk art, Persian, Sassanian and Indian art.<ref name="mek.oszk.hu"/>
+*Károly Kós (1883-1977), architect, writer, graphic artist, a leading figure of the Hungarian [[Arts & Crafts movement]].<ref name="mek.oszk.hu"/>
+[[File:Körösfői-Kriesch Aladár - Sámánok körtánca 1911 Marosvásárhely Kulturpalota.png|thumb|right|180px|Aladár Körösfői-Kriesch: "Circle Dance of Shamans" 1911. Marosvásárhely, Kulturpalota]]
 The idea of a Hungarian Oriental Institute originated from Zichy Jenő.<ref>Vincze Zoltán: Létay Balázs, a magyar asszirológia legszebb reménye
@@ Line 150: / Line 162: @@
 [[File:Jozsef Ferenc főherceg.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Archduke Joseph Francis Habsburg, the first patron of the Hungarian Turan Society]]
-In 1920, [[Archduke Joseph Francis of Austria]] (Archduke Joseph Francis Habsburg) became the first patron of the Hungarian Turan Society<ref name="tankonyvtar.hu">http://www.tankonyvtar.hu/hu/tartalom/tkt/ostortenet-nemzettudat/ch07.html</ref>
+In 1920, [[Archduke Joseph Francis of Austria]] (Archduke Joseph Francis Habsburg) became the first patron of the Hungarian Turan Society<ref name="tankonyvtar.hu">http://www.tankonyvtar.hu/hu/tartalom/tkt/ostortenet-nemzettudat/ch07.html</ref>{{Request quotation|date=March 2014}}
 ==Political Turanism==
@@ Line 156: / Line 168: @@
 {{cquote|The mechanism of successful propaganda may be roughly summed up as follows. Men accept the propagandist's theology or political theory, because it apparently justifies and explains the sentiments and desires evoked in them by the circumstances. The theory may, of course, be completely absurd from a scientific point of view, but this is of no importance so long as men believe it to be true.<ref>Aldous Huxley: Writers and Readers. 1936.</ref>}}
+The movement received impetus after Hungary's defeat in World War I. Under the terms of the [[Treaty of Trianon]] (1920.VI.4.), the new Hungarian state constituted only 32,7 percent of the territory of historic, pre-treaty Hungary, and lost 58,4 percent of its total population. More than 3,2 million ethnic Hungarians, one-third of all Hungarians resided outside the new boundaries of Hungary, in the successor states, under oppressive conditions. Old Hungarian cities of great cultural importance like Pozsony, Kassa, Kolozsvár were lost.  Under these circumstances no Hungarian government could survive without seeking justice for Magyars and Hungary. Reuniting the Magyars became a crucial point in public life and on the political agenda. Public sentiment became strongly anti-Western, anti-French, and anti-British. Outrage led many to reject Europe and turn towards the East in search of new friends and allies in a bid to revise the terms of the treaty and restore Hungarian power.
-The movement received impetus after Hungary's defeat in World War I. Outrage at the [[Treaty of Trianon]], which saw Hungary lose two-thirds of its historical territory, led many to reject Europe and turn towards the East in search of new allies in a bid to revise the terms of the treaty and restore Hungarian power. The more radical Turanists stressed the superiority of Eastern culture and race (Mongoloid) to those of the West (Caucasian) and emphasized the racial aspects of the ideology.<ref>Stephen Uhalley ''China and Christianity: Burdened Past, Hopeful Future'', M.E. Sharpe, 2001, p.218 ff.</ref> In [[Transylvania]], "Turanist ethnographers and folklorists privileged the peasants' cultural 'uniqueness', locating a cultural essence of [[Hungarian people|Magyar]]ness in everything from fishing hooks and methods of animal husbandry to ritual folk songs, archaic, 'individualistic' dances, spicy dishes and superstitions."<ref>László Kürti ''The Remote Borderland: Transylvania in the Hungarian Imagination'', SUNY Press, 2001, p.97</ref> According to the historian [[Krisztián Ungváry]] "With the awakening of Hungarian nationalism at the beginning of the 20th century, the question became topical again. The elite wanted to see itself as a military nation.The claims of certain linguistic researchers regarding the Finno-Ugric relationship were therefore strongly rejected, because many found the idea that their nation was related to a peaceful farming people (the Finns) as insulting...The extremist Turanians insisted on “ties of ancestry” with the Turkish peoples, Tibet, Japan and even the Sumerians, and held the view that Jesus was not a Jew but a Hungarian or a “noble of Parthia”."<ref name="See Ungváry">See Ungváry</ref>
+"Disappointment towards Europe caused by "the betrayal of the West in Trianon," and the pessimistic feeling of loneliness, led different strata in society towards Turanism. They tried to look for friends, kindred peoples and allies in the East so that Hungary could break out of its isolation and regain its well deserved position among the nations. A more radical group of conservative, rightist people, sometimes even with an anti-Semitic hint propagated sharply anti-Western views and the superiority of Eastern culture, the necessity of a pro-Eastern policy, and development of the awareness of Turanic [[Racialism|racialism]] among Hungarian people.” in: Uhalley, Stephen and Wu, Xiaoxin eds.: ''China and Christianity. Burdened Past, Hopeful Future.'' 2001. p. 219.<ref>Uhalley, Stephen and Wu, Xiaoxin eds.: ''China and Christianity. Burdened Past, Hopeful Future.'' 2001. p. 219.</ref>
+In [[Transylvania]], "Turanist ethnographers and folklorists privileged the peasants' cultural 'uniqueness', locating a cultural essence of [[Hungarian people|Magyar]]ness in everything from fishing hooks and methods of animal husbandry to ritual folk songs, archaic, 'individualistic' dances, spicy dishes and superstitions."<ref>László Kürti ''The Remote Borderland: Transylvania in the Hungarian Imagination'', SUNY Press, 2001, p.97</ref> According to the historian [[Krisztián Ungváry]] "With the awakening of Hungarian nationalism at the beginning of the 20th century, the question became topical again. The elite wanted to see itself as a military nation.The claims of certain linguistic researchers regarding the Finno-Ugric relationship were therefore strongly rejected, because many found the idea that their nation was related to a peaceful farming people (the Finns) as insulting...The extremist Turanians insisted on “ties of ancestry” with the Turkish peoples, Tibet, Japan and even the Sumerians, and held the view that Jesus was not a Jew but a Hungarian or a “noble of Parthia”."<ref name="See Ungváry">See Ungváry</ref>
 ==Turanism and Hungarian fascism==
-The leader of the Hungarian fascist [[Arrow Cross Party]], [[Ferenc Szálasi]], believed in the existence of a distinct Turanid Hungarian race (which included [[Jesus Christ]]). The idea was a key part of his ideology of "Hungarism".<ref>[[Stanley Payne]] ''A History of Fascism, 1914-1945'' (University of Wisconsin Press, 1995) pp.272-274</ref>
+The leader of the Hungarian fascist [[Arrow Cross Party]], [[Ferenc Szálasi]], believed in the existence of a distinct [[Turanid race|Turanid]] Hungarian race (which included [[Jesus Christ]]). The idea was a key part of his ideology of "Hungarism".<ref>[[Stanley Payne]] ''A History of Fascism, 1914-1945'' (University of Wisconsin Press, 1995) pp.272-274</ref>
 In Hungary some fascists (and non-fascists) tried to link the ancestors of the Hungarians to [[Timur]], the [[Ottomans]] and Japan, which some Hungarians of the 1930s described as the 'other sword of Turan' (the first sword being Hungary). {{cquote|While some Hungarian Turanists went as far as to argue they were racially healthier than and superior to other Europeans (including Germans, who were already corrupted by [[Judaism]]), others felt more modestly, that as Turanians living in Europe, they might provide an important bridge between East and West and thus play a role in world politics out of proportion of their numbers or the size of their country. This geopolitical argument was taken to absurd extremes by Ferenc Szálasi, head of the Arrow Cross-Hungarist movement, who believed that, owing to their unique historical and geographical position, Hungarians might play a role equal to, or even more important than, Germany in building the new European order, while Szálasi's own charisma might eventually help him supersede [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] as leader of the international movement.<ref>Andrew C. Janos ''East Central Europe in the Modern World'' Stanford University Press, 2002 pp.185-186</ref>}}
@@ Line 168: / Line 184: @@
 [[File:Parthian Jesus.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Jesus Christ as Parthian-Hungarian warrior prince]]
 A Hungarian non-commissioned officer Ferenc Jós Badiny wrote his book ( Jézus Király, a pártus herceg) "King Jesus, the Parthian prince" , where he invented the theory of Jesus the Parthian warrior prince.
-Many [[Christian]] Hungarian Turanists held the view that Jesus Christ was not a Jew but a proto-Hungarian or a “noble of [[Parthia]]”.<ref name="See Ungváry"/>  The theory of “Jesus, the Parthian prince” are such, or the revivification of real or supposed elements of priest-magicians of ancient “magic” Middle-Eastern world, shamanism, and pagan ancient Hungarian religion. Also some [[muslim]] Turkish Turanists held the view that [[Muhammad]] was not an Arab but a [[Sumer]]ian, and Sumerians are Turanid according to Turanist theses. It is an opportunity for the Christian Turanists to link Jesus Christ to the ancient middle-eastern mystery and the ancient pagan Hungarian beliefs. Both Catholic and Protestant religious leaders of Hungary acted against this theory and beliefs.<ref name="hetivalasz_shamans-in-the-pantry">http://hetivalasz.hu/english_periscope/shamans-in-the-pantry-25940</ref>
+Many [[Christian]] Hungarian Turanists held the view that Jesus Christ was not a Jew but a proto-Hungarian or a “noble of [[Parthia]]”.<ref name="See Ungváry"/>{{Request quotation|date=March 2014}} The theory of “Jesus, the Parthian prince” are such, or the revivification of real or supposed elements of priest-magicians of ancient “magic” Middle-Eastern world, shamanism, and pagan ancient Hungarian religion. Also some [[muslim]] Turkish Turanists held the view that [[Muhammad]] was not an Arab but a [[Sumer]]ian, and Sumerians are Turanid according to Turanist theses. It is an opportunity for the Christian Turanists to link Jesus Christ to the ancient middle-eastern mystery and the ancient pagan Hungarian beliefs. Both Catholic and Protestant religious leaders of Hungary acted against this theory and beliefs.<ref name="hetivalasz_shamans-in-the-pantry">http://hetivalasz.hu/english_periscope/shamans-in-the-pantry-25940</ref>{{Request quotation|date=March 2014}}
 The [[Right-wing politics|right-wing]] [[Jobbik]] party and its president [[Gábor Vona]] are uncompromising supporters of Turanism and [[Pan-Turkism]] (The ideology of Jobbik considers Hungarians as a Turkic nation.)<ref>http://www.jobbik.com/jobbik_news/europe/3198.html</ref>{{dead link|date=December 2012}}
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 ===The Habsburg conspiracy theory===
-The Habsburg conspiracy theory is very popular amongst political Turanists, which was invented only in the 1970s.<ref>http://finnugor.elte.hu/mostort/ostortnyelveszet1.pdf</ref>{{Request quotation|date=April 2014}} According to the myth, the Habsburgs envied the glorius Turanian past and "ancestry" of the Hungarian nation, therefore Habsburgs created a plan to hide it from the Hungarian and European public opinion. In the reality, it was Emperor Francis Joseph who used his political prestige to give an university cathedra (as professor) for Ármin Vámbéry, the leaders of Hungarian turanists.<ref>http://www.tenyleg.com/index.php?action=recordView&type=places&category_id=3115&id=319584</ref><ref>http://www.nyest.hu/renhirek/akiknek-el-akarjak-venni-a-multjukat</ref>
+The Habsburg conspiracy theory is very popular amongst political Turanists, which was invented only in the 1970s.<ref>http://finnugor.elte.hu/mostort/ostortnyelveszet1.pdf</ref>{{Request quotation|date=April 2014}} According to the myth, the Habsburgs envied the glorius Turanian past and "ancestry" of the Hungarian nation, therefore Habsburgs created a plan to hide it from the Hungarian and European public opinion. In the reality, it was Emperor Francis Joseph who used his political prestige to give an university cathedra (as professor) for Ármin Vámbéry, the leaders of Hungarian turanists.<ref>http://www.tenyleg.com/index.php?action=recordView&type=places&category_id=3115&id=319584</ref><ref>http://www.nyest.hu/renhirek/akiknek-el-akarjak-venni-a-multjukat</ref>{{Request quotation|date=March 2014}}
 ===Kurultáj===