British Israelism

Not to be confused with Israelis in the United Kingdom or British Jews.

An 1890 book advocating British Israelism. According to the doctrine, the Lost Ten tribes of Israel found their way to Western Europe and Britain, becoming ancestors of the British and related peoples.

File:Israel to Britain.jpg

The travels of Israel to the British-Isles.

British Israelism (also called Anglo-Israelism) is a religious movement that since the 16th century, has held the belief that the people of "England (Great Britain)" are "genetically, racially, and linguistically the direct descendants" of the Ten Lost Tribes of ancient Israel. The movement includes the claim that the British Royal Family is directly descended from the line of King David. The movement never had a head organisation or a centralized structure. Various British Israelite organisations were set up throughout the British Empire and in America from the 1870s; a number of such organisations are still active today.

The central tenets of British Israelism have been refuted by evidence from modern archaeological, ethnological, genetic, linguistic, and philological research.

History of the movement

Foundation

According to Brackney (2012) and Fine (2015), the French Hugenot magistrate M. le Loyer's The Ten Lost Tribes, published in 1590, provided the first expression that "Anglo-Saxon, Celtic, Scandinavian, Germanic, and associated cultures" were direct descendants of the ancient Israelites. Anglo-Israelism has also been attributed to Sir Francis Drake and King James I, who believed he was the King of Israel. Adriaan van Schrieck (1560-1621), who influenced Henry Spelman (1562-1641) and John Sadler (1615-1674), wrote in the early 17th century about his ideas on the origins of the Celtic and Saxon peoples. In 1649, Sadler published The Rights of the Kingdom, "which argues for an 'Israelite genealogy for the British people'".

British Israelism arose in England, then spread to the United States. British-Israelists cite various medieval manuscripts to claim an older origin, but British Israelism as a distinct movement appeared in the early 1880s:

Although scattered British Israel societies are known to have existed as early as 1872, there was at first no real move to develop an organization beyond the small groups of believers which had arisen spontaneously. The beginnings of the movement as an identifiable religious force can, therefore, be more accurately placed in the 1880's when the circumstances of the time were particularly propitious for the appearance of a movement so imperialistically-orientated.

Earlier aspects of British Israelism and influences are traceable to Richard Brothers in 1794, John Wilson's Our Israelitish Origins (1840s), and John Pym Yeatman's The Shemetic Origin of the Nations of Western Europe (1879). In 1875, J. C. Gawler published Our Scythian Ancestors, which is considered an influential text to the British Israel movement.

Heyday, end of the 19th and early 20th centuries

William Pascoe Goard

At the end of the 19th century, Edward Hine, Edward Wheeler Bird, and Herbert Aldersmith developed the British Israelite movement. The extent to which the clergy in Britain became aware of the movement may be gauged from the comment made by Cardinal John Henry Newman (1801–1890) when asked why he had left the Church of England in 1845 to join the Roman Catholic Church. He said that there was a very real danger that the movement "would take over the Church of England."

In Russia, the controversial self-declared Zionist priest Hippolytus Lutostansky claimed that the British people were of Jewish origin. (Incidentally, he was an antisemite, yet he had insisted on Palestine as the national home for Russian Jews as early as 1911.)

By the 1890s, the "Anglo-Israel Association" had 300 members; it was based in Britain and founded in 1879 by physician George Moore. Hine later departed for the United States where he promoted the idea overseas.

At the time of its publishing in 1906, the Jewish Encyclopedia states adherents "are said to number 2,000,000 in England and the United States"

Between 1899 and 1902, adherents of British Israelism dug up parts of the Hill of Tara in the belief that the Ark of the Covenant was buried there, doing much damage to one of Ireland's most ancient royal and archaeological sites. At the same time, British Israelism became associated with various pseudo-archaeological pyramidology theories, such as the notion that the Pyramid of Khufu contained a prophetic numerology of the British peoples.

In 1914, the thirty-fourth year of its publication, the Anglo-Israel Almanac listed details of a large number of Kingdom Identity Groups operating independently throughout the British Isles and in Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Canada, and the United States of America.

In 1919, the British-Israel-World Federation (BIWF) was founded in London, and Covenant Publishing was founded in 1922. William Pascoe Goard was the first director of the publishing house. During this time, several prominent figures patronized the BIWF organization and its publisher; Princess Alice, Countess of Athlone was Patron-in-chief in pre-World War II days. One of the most notable members was William Massey, then Prime Minister of New Zealand. Due to the expansive nature of the British Empire, believers in British Israelism spread worldwide and the BIWF expanded its organization to the commonwealth. Howard Rand promoted the teaching and became National Commissioner of the Anglo-Saxon Federation of America in 1928. He published The Bulletin, later renamed The Messenger of the Covenant. More recently, it has been renamed Destiny.

During its heyday in the early 20th century, British Israelism was also supported by John Fisher, 1st Baron Fisher. A prolific author on British Israelism during the later 1930s and 40s was Alexander James Ferris whose When Russia Bombs Germany (1940) sold over 60,000 copies.

Herbert Armstrong

The teaching of British Israelism was vigorously promoted beginning in the 1960s by Herbert W. Armstrong, founder and former Pastor General of the Worldwide Church of God. Armstrong believed that the teaching was a key to understanding biblical prophecy: "One might ask, were not biblical prophecies closed and sealed? Indeed they were—until now! And even now they can be understood only by those who possess the master key to unlock them." Armstrong believed that he was called by God to proclaim the prophecies to the Lost Tribes of Israel before the "end-times". Armstrong's belief caused his separation from the Church of God Seventh Day because of its refusal to adopt the teaching.

Armstrong created his own church, first called the "Radio Church of God" and later renamed the "Worldwide Church of God". He described British Israelism as a "central plank" of his theology.

After Armstrong's death, his former church abandoned its belief in British Israelism and changed its name to Grace Communion International (GCI) in 2009. It offers an explanation for the doctrine's origin and its abandonment by the church at its official website. Church members who disagreed with such doctrinal changes left the Worldwide Church of God/GCI to form offshoot churches. Many of these organizations still teach British Israelism, including the Philadelphia Church of God, the Living Church of God, and the United Church of God. Armstrong promoted other genealogical history theories, such as teaching that modern-day Germany now represents ancient Assyria. He wrote in chapter 5 of his Mystery of the Ages (1985), "The Assyrians settled in central Europe, and the Germans, undoubtedly, are, in part, the descendants of the ancient Assyrians." (p. 183).

Contemporary movement

Orange Street Congregational Church, London

In 1968, one source estimated that there were between 3,000 and 5,000 British Israelites in Britain.

In Britain, the theology of British Israelism has been taught by a few small Pentecostal churches, including the Bible-Pattern Church Fellowship, an early offshoot of the Elim Pentecostal Church. The latter church does not hold to the British-Israel doctrine.

In London, the Orange Street Congregational Church teaches a form of British Israelism, and the Ensign Trust publishes The Ensign Message in its furtherance. In Australia, the Christian Revival Crusade founded by Leo Harris once taught this theology but abandoned it. The Revival Centres International continues to teach the doctrine, a prominent group that separated from the Crusade, along with other splinter groups. The "Churches of God" in Ireland are also known for their teaching on this subject.

Great Britain & The U.S.A. Identified as Israel

A commonly found British-Israel doctrine is that the Tribe of Ephraim and the Tribe of Manasseh can be identified as modern day Britain and the United States of America. British-Israel adherents cite numerous scriptures, Semiotics, archaeological, and ethnological resources as proofs.

Jacob’s Birthright - Ephraim and Manasseh

“Now the sons of Reuben the firstborn of Israel, (for he was the firstborn; but forasmuch as he defiled his father's bed, his birthright was given unto the sons (Ephraim and Manasseh) of Joseph the son of Israel: and the genealogy is not to be reckoned after the birthright. For Judah prevailed above his brethren, and of him came the chief ruler; but the birthright was Joseph's” 1 Chron 5:1-2 (KJV)

When Joseph, the birthright son of Jacob-Israel, brought his two sons Ephraim and Manasseh to Jacob for the birthright blessing, Jacob knowingly crossed his hands. He did this so the birthright would pass to God’s appointed heir, Ephraim. He said of Manasseh, the elder, “he also shall become a people, and he also shall become great, but truly his younger brother shall be greater than he, and his seed shall become a multitude of nations” Gen 48:19-20 (KJV)

Scots are of Scythian Ancestry

Anglo-Israelism claim that the Scythians were the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel. The ancient Persians called all the Scyths Σάκαι (Sacae, Herodotus 7.64), however the Scythians called themselves Scoloti. (Herodotus 4.6)

Numerous British-Israel Associations cite the Declaration of Arbroath, also known as the ‘Scottish Declaration of Independence’, as evidence of the Scot-Scythian ancestry.

The 'Tyninghame' copy of the Declaration from 1320 AD

The Declaration, written in 1320AD, reads "Most Holy Father and Lord, we know and from the chronicles and books of the ancients we find that among other famous nations our own, the Scots, has been graced with widespread renown. They journeyed from Greater Scythia by way of the Tyrrhenian Sea and the Pillars of Hercules, and dwelt for a long course of time in Spain among the most savage tribes, but nowhere could they be subdued by any race, however barbarous. Thence they came, twelve hundred years after the people of Israel crossed the Red Sea, to their home in the west where they still live today. The Britons they first drove out, the Picts they utterly destroyed, and, even though very often assailed by the Norwegians, the Danes and the English, they took possession of that home with many victories and untold efforts; and, as the historians of old time bear witness, they have held it free of all bondage ever since. In their kingdom there have reigned one hundred and thirteen kings of their own royal stock, the line unbroken a single foreigner."

Relation to Christian Identity

While both early and current British Israelites such as Edward Hine and John Wilson were philo-semites, a variant of British Israelism formed the basis for a racialized theology and became known as Christian Identity, which has at its core the belief that non-Caucasian people have no souls and therefore cannot be saved. Christian Identity emerged in sharp contrast as a strongly anti-Semitic theology.The Anti-Defamation League (ADL) describes the emergence of Christian Identity from British Israelism as an 'ugly turn':

Once on American shores, British-Israelism began to evolve. Originally, believers viewed contemporary Jews as descendants of those ancient Israelites who had never been "lost." They might be seen critically but, given their significant role in the British-Israel genealogical scheme, not usually with animosity. By the 1930s, however, in the U.S., a strain of antisemitism started to permeate the movement (though some maintained traditional beliefs—and a small number of traditionalists still exist in the U.S.)

Another source describes the emergence of Christian Identity from British Israelism as a "remarkable transition", also noting that traditional British Israelites were advocates of Philo-Semitism which paradoxically changed to antisemitism and racism under Christian Identity. In fact, British Israelism itself had several Jewish members, and it received support from rabbis throughout the 19th century; within British politics it supported Benjamin Disraeli, who was descended from Sephardi Jews. Christian Identity, which emerged in the 1920s, began to turn antisemitic by teaching the belief that the Jews are not descended from the tribe of Judah (as British Israelites maintain), but are instead descended from Satan or Edomite-Khazars. The British Israel form of the belief held no anti-Semitic views; its followers instead held the view that Jews made up a minority of the tribes of Israel (Judah and Benjamin), with the British and other related Northern European peoples making up the remainder.

Tenets

Not all Israelites are Jews

File:Abraham's-Family-Tree.jpg

The prophetic family tree of Abraham as foretold in the Bible.

Adherents believe the Twelve Tribes of Israel are the twelve sons of the patriarch Jacob (who was later named Israel). Jacob elevated the descendants of Ephraim and Manasseh (the two sons of Joseph) to the status of full tribes in their own right, replacing the tribe of Joseph. A division occurred among the twelve tribes in the days of Jeroboam and Rehoboam, with the three tribes of Judah, Benjamin and partially Levi, forming the Kingdom of Judah, and the remaining ten tribes forming the Kingdom of Israel (Samaria). Ergo all Jews are Israelites, that is, descendants of Jacob/Israel, but not all Israelites are Jews.

Connecting the deported Israelites with the Saka

Jehu kneeling at the feet of Shalmaneser III on the Black Obelisk.

The key component of British Israelism is its representation of the migrations of the Lost Tribes of Israel. Adherents believe that the Behistun Inscription connects the people known as Saka, Sacae, or Scythians (in Old Persian and Elamite) with the people known as Gimirri or Cimmerians (in Babylonian).

It should be made clear from the start that the terms 'Cimmerian' and 'Scythian' were interchangeable: in Akkadian the name Iskuzai (Asguzai) occurs only exceptionally. Gimirrai (Gamir) was the normal designation for 'Cimmerians' as well as 'Scythians' in Akkadian.

The teaching further suggests that the "Cimmerians/Scythians" are synonymous with the deported Israelites.

British Israelite E. Raymond Capt claimed that there were similarities between King Jehu's pointed headdress and that of the captive Saka king seen to the far right on the Behistun Inscription.

Connecting the Saka-Scythians to the Celts

Adherents say that Saka-Scythians (whom they believe to be the Lost Tribes of Israel) migrated north and west after Cyrus the Great conquered the city of Babylon, and were forced yet further north and west by migrating/invading Sarmatians.

Theological claims that assert a racial lineage

British Israelism asserts theologically related claims of a genetic link to the early Israelites. As such, it is based on a genealogical construct. This belief is typically confined to the geo-political status or the prophetical identity of the nation, not to the individual's superiority or salvation status with God.

Due to the diverse structure of the movement, other elements of its belief and its key doctrines may be embraced by individual adherents. British Israel theology varies from the conventionally Protestant Christian. Most British Israel movements believe that personal, individual salvation is open to all people.

Compatibility with present-day research findings

Modern genetic findings

One study concluded that "Recent research into Irish DNA at the beginning of the twenty-first century suggests that the early inhabitants of Ireland were not directly descended from the Keltoi of central Europe. Genome sequencing performed on remains of early settlers in Ireland by researchers at Trinity University in Dublin and Queens University has revealed at least two waves of migration to the island in past millennia. Analysis of the remains of a 5,200 year-old Irish farmer suggested that the population of Ireland at that time was closely genetically related to the modern-day populations of southern Europe, especially Spain and Sardinia. Her ancestors, however, originally migrated from the Middle East, the cradle of agriculture.

Meanwhile, the research team also examined the remains of three 4,000 year-old men from the Bronze Age and revealed that another wave of migration to Ireland had taken place, this time from the edges of Eastern Europe. One third of their ancestry came from the Steppe region of Russia and Ukraine, so their ancestors must have gradually spread west across Europe. These remains, found on Rathlin Island also shared a close genetic affinity with the Scottish, Welsh, and modern Irish, unlike the earlier farmer. This suggests that many people living in Ireland today have genetic links to people who were living on the island at least 4,000 years ago"

Contrarily, another study concluded that "the combined results suggest that a major portion of NRY biallelic diversity present in most of the contemporary Jewish communities surveyed here traces to a common Middle Eastern source population several thousand years ago. The implication is that this source population included a large number of distinct paternal and maternal lineages, reflecting genetic variation established in the Middle East at that time. In turn, this source diversity has been maintained within Jewish communities, despite numerous migrations during the Diaspora and long-term residence as isolated subpopulations in numerous geographic locations outside of the Middle East."

Research standards

Critics of British Israelism note that the arguments presented by promoters of the teaching are based on unsubstantiated and highly speculative amateur research. Tudor Parfitt, author of The Lost Tribes: The History of a Myth, states that the proof cited by adherents of British Israelism is "of a feeble composition even by the low standards of the genre."

Historical linguistics

Some proponents of British Israelism claim numerous links in historical linguistics between ancient Hebrew and various European place names and languages. This can be traced to the works of John Wilson in the 19th century. Wilson, who was self-trained, looked for similarities in the sounds of words and argued that many Scottish, British and Irish words stemmed from ancient Hebrew. Wilson's publications inspired the development of British Israel language associations in Europe.

Other adherents have felt 'that if, as the Prophet Hosea declared, Israel was to lose their religion and become lost in paganism, it would eventually speak the tongue of it's pagan masters.". According to British-Israel doctrine, the ten lost tribes have been dwelling among Indo-European speaking nations for over 2,520 years.

Other links are claimed, but they cannot be substantiated and they contradict the findings of academic linguistic research. This shows conclusively that the languages of the British Isles (English, Welsh, and Gaelic) belong to the Indo-European language family and are unrelated to Hebrew, which is a Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. In 1906, T.R. Lounsbury stated that “no trace of the slightest real connection can be discovered” between English and ancient Hebrew.

Scriptural interpretation

Adherents of British Israelism cite various scriptures in support of the argument that the "lost" Northern Israelite Tribes migrated through Europe to end up in Britain. Critics argue that British Israelists misunderstand and misinterpret the meaning of these scriptures.

One such case is the distinction that British Israelists make between the “Jews” of the Southern Kingdom and the “Israelites” of the Northern Kingdom. They believe that the Bible consistently distinguishes between the two groups. Critics counter that many of these scriptures are misinterpreted because the distinction between “Jews” and “Israelites” was lost over time after the captivities.

British Israelists believe that the Northern Tribes of Israel lost their identity after the captivity in Assyria and that this is reflected in the Bible. Critics disagree with this assertion and argue that only higher ranking Israelites were deported from Israel and many Israelites remained. They cite examples after the Assyrian captivity, such as Josiah, King of Judah, who received money from the tribes of “Manasseh, and Ephraim and all the remnant of Israel” (2 Chronicles 34:9), and Hezekiah, who sent invitations not only to Judah, but also to northern Israel for the attendance of a Passover in Jerusalem. (2 Chronicles 30); note that British Israelites interpret 2 Chronicles 34:9 as referring to "Scythians" in order to fit with their thesis.

British Israelism states that the Bible refers to the Lost Tribes of Israel as dwelling in “isles” (Isaiah 49:1, 3), which they interpret to mean the British Isles. Critics assert that the word “isles” used in English-language bibles should more accurately be interpreted to mean “coasts” or “distant lands” “without any implication of their being surrounded by the sea.”

Historical speculation

British Israelism rests on linking different ancient populations. This includes linking the "lost" tribes of Israel with the Scythians, Cimmerians, Celts, and modern Western Europeans such as the British. To support these links, adherents claim that similarities exist between various cultural aspects of these population groups, and they argue that these links demonstrate the migration of the "lost" Israelites in a westerly direction. Examples given include burial customs, metalwork, clothing, dietary customs, and more. Critics argue that the customs of the Scythians and the Cimmerians are in contrast with those of the Ancient Israelites. Furthermore, the so-called similarities and theories proposed by adherents are contradicted by the weight of evidence and research on the history of ancient populations. It does not provide support for the purported links.

Ideology

Parfitt suggests that the idea of British Israelism was inspired by numerous ideological factors, such as the desire for ordinary people to have a glorious ancestral past, pride in the British Empire, and the belief in the "racial superiority of white Anglo-Saxon Protestants".

Notable adherents

Poole, WH, Anglo-Israel

• Richard Brothers (1757–1824), early believer and teacher/promoter of this teaching
• John Wilson (1799–1870) published a series of his lectures in a book, Our Israelitish Origin (1840)
• Archbishop William Bennett Bond (1815–1906), Primate of the Anglican Church of Canada
• Charles Piazzi Smyth (1819–1900), pyramidologist and Astronomer Royal for Scotland
• Mary Baker Eddy (1821–1910), founder of Christian Science
• Edward Wheeler Bird (1823–1903), Anglo-Indian judge and British-Israel author
• John Cox Gawler (1830–1882) was a Keeper of the Jewel House and British Israelite author.
• Edward Hine (1825–1891), artist, historian, author of Forty-Seven Identifications of the British Nation with the Lost Ten Tribes of Israel
• George Owen Barnes (1827–1908), Presbyterian missionary and independent evangelist in Kentucky
• Elieser Bassin (1840–1898), a Russian-Jewish convert to Christianity
• John Fisher, 1st Baron Fisher (1841–1920), Admiral of the Fleet
• Richard Reader Harris (KC) (1847–1909), founder of the Pentecostal League of Prayer movement in London
• John Harden Allen (1847–1930), an American holiness minister, wrote Judah's Sceptre and Joseph's Birthright
• C. A. L. Totten (1851–1908), Professor of Military Tactics at Yale University, wrote countless articles and books advocating British Israelism, including a 26-volume series entitled Our Race
• Charles Fox Parham (1873–1929), American preacher, instrumental in the formation of Pentecostalism
• William Comyns Beaumont (1873–1956), British journalist, author, and lecturer
• William Aberhart (1878–1943), a Social Credit premier of Alberta from 1935 to 1943
• Princess Alice, Countess of Athlone (1883–1981), a patron of the British-Israel-World Federation
• David Davidson (1884–1956), Scottish structural engineer and pyramidologist
• George Jeffreys (1889–1962), Welsh minister and evangelist who founded the Elim Pentecostal Church
• William H. Poole (d. 1896), Methodist minister, known for his book Anglo-Israel, or the British Nation the Lost Tribes of Israel (1889)
• Herbert W. Armstrong (1892–1986), American founder of the Worldwide Church of God
• Boake Carter (1903-1944), British-educated American radio news commentator
• Patience Strong (1907–1990), poet
• Alexander James Ferris, a prolific author on British Israelism.
• Garner Ted Armstrong (1930–2003), Church of God International (United States)
• Robert Bradford (1941–1981), Methodist minister and Ulster Unionist politician
• Alan Campbell (b. 1941), Pentecostal pastor from Northern Ireland
• Nelson McCausland (b. 1951), Democratic Unionist politician

See also

• And did those feet in ancient time, the poem written by William Blake which is popularly known as "Jerusalem"
• Aryan race
• Assyria and Germany in Anglo-Israelism
• Black Hebrew Israelites, groups of African Americans who believe that they are descended from the ancient Israelites
• Christian Identity
• Christian Zionism
• Destiny Publishers
• Divine providence
• Dutch Israelism
• French Israelism
• Groups claiming affiliation with Israelites
• History of the Jews in the United Kingdom
• House of Joseph (LDS Church)
• Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry
• Manifest destiny
• Nordic Israelism
• Nordicism
• Stone of Jacob
• Stone of Scone
• Supersessionism
• Two House theology
• The British-Israel-World Federation

Sources

• Wilson, J. (1968a). British Israelism. The Sociological Review. 16(1): 41–57.
• Wilson, J. (1968b). The Relation between Ideology and Organization in a Small Religious Group: The British Israelites. Review of Religious Research. 10(1): 51–60.
• Wilson, J. (1968c). British Israelism: A Revitalization Movement in Contemporary Culture. Archives de sociologie des religions. 13(26): 73–80.
• Michell, John. (1984). Eccentric Lives and Peculiar Notions. "Jews, Britons and the Lost Tribes of Israel" [Chapter]. Secaucus, NJ: Citadel Press.
• Parfitt, T. (2003). The Lost Tribes of Israel: The History of a Myth. Phoenix.
• Reisenauer, E. M. (2008). "Anti-Jewish Philosemitism". British Scholar. 1(1): 79–104.
• Simpson, R. (2002). "The Political Influence of the British-Israel Movement in the Nineteenth Century". Victorian Studies.

Further reading

• Baron, David (1915), The History of the Ten "Lost" Tribes: Anglo-Israelism Examined .
• Darms, Anton, The Delusion of British Israelism: A comprehensive Treatise, New York: Our Hope.
• Jowett, George F (1980) [1961], The Drama of the Lost Disciples, London: Covenant Publishing. A work of theoretical history which covers many relevant themes of Biblical and British connections.
• Kellogg, Howard, British-Israel Identity, Los Angeles: American Prophetic League.
• Kossy, Donna (2001) [1994], "The Anglo-Israelites", Kooks: A Guide to the Outer Limits of Human Belief (2nd exp. ed.), Los Angeles: Feral House, ISBN 978-0-922915-67-5.
• May, HG (16 September 1943), "The Ten Lost Tribes", Biblical Archeologist, 16: 55–60.
• McQuaid, Elwood (Dec./Jan. 1977–78), "Who Is a Jew? British-Israelism versus the Bible", Israel My Glory: 35 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help).
• Clark, Michael A, The Continuing Kingdom of God Upon Earth. Without doubt -- The Greatest Love Story of All Time, (2009) The British-Israel-World Federation, Co Durham,UK. ISBN 978-085205-075-0.
• Clark, Michael A, based on works of Anderson, C L, The Many Nations of Israel. A Vision Extraordinary, (2016) The Kingdom Foundation, Co Durham, UK.

External links

• Brit Am Israel
• British-Israel basics
• Christian, Messianic, and Jewish research on the Ten Lost Tribes
• Literature on the Lost Tribes of Israel from Destiny Publishers
• Menassah ben Israel, The Hope of Israel (London, 1650, English translation), scanned text online at Oliver's Bookshelf
• Robinson, BA, Anglo-Israelism and British Israelism], Religious Tolerance.
• "Anglo-Israelism", Jewish Encyclopedia.