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'''Nuclear weapons tests''' are experiments carried out to determine the effectiveness, yield, and explosive capability of [[nuclear weapon]]s. Throughout the twentieth century, most nations that developed nuclear weapons tested them. Testing nuclear weapons can yield information about how the weapons work, as well as how the weapons behave under various conditions and how personnel, structures, and equipment behave when subjected to nuclear explosions. Nuclear testing has often been used as an indicator of scientific and military strength, and many tests have been overtly political in their intention; most [[list of countries with nuclear weapons|nuclear weapons states]] publicly declared their nuclear status by means of a nuclear test.

The first nuclear device was detonated as a test by the United States at the [[Trinity site]] on July 16, 1945, with a yield approximately [[TNT equivalent|equivalent]] to 20 [[kiloton]]s of [[TNT]]. The first [[thermonuclear weapon]] technology test of engineer device, codenamed "[[Ivy Mike]]", was tested at the [[Enewetak Atoll]] in the [[Marshall Islands]] on November 1, 1952 (local date), also by the United States. The largest nuclear weapon ever tested was the "[[Tsar Bomba]]" of the [[Soviet Union]] at [[Novaya Zemlya]] on October 30, 1961, with the largest yield ever seen, an estimated 50–58 [[TNT equivalent|megatons]].

In 1963, three (UK, US, Soviet Union) of the four nuclear states and many non-nuclear states signed the [[Limited Test Ban Treaty]], pledging to refrain from testing nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, underwater, or in [[outer space]]. The treaty permitted [[underground nuclear testing]]. France continued atmospheric testing until 1974, and China continued until 1980. Neither has signed the treaty.<ref>"The Treaty has not been signed by France or by the Peoples Republic of China." U.S. Department of State, [https://www.state.gov/t/isn/4797.htm Limited Test Ban Treaty].</ref>

Underground tests in the United States continued until 1992 (its last nuclear test), the Soviet Union until 1990, the United Kingdom until 1991, and both China and France until 1996. In signing the [[Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty]] in 1996, these states have pledged to discontinue all nuclear testing; the treaty has not yet entered into force because of failure to be ratified by eight countries. Non-signatories [[India and weapons of mass destruction|India]] and [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|Pakistan]] last tested nuclear weapons in 1998. North Korea conducted [[List of nuclear weapons tests of North Korea|nuclear tests]] in 2006, 2009, 2013, 2016, and 2017. The [[2017 North Korean nuclear test|most recent confirmed nuclear test]] {{As of|2017|9|alt=occurred}} in September 2017 in [[North Korea]].

==Types==
[[File:Types of nuclear testing.svg|thumb|Four major types of nuclear testing: 1. atmospheric, 2. [[underground nuclear testing|underground]], 3. exoatmospheric, and 4. underwater]]
Nuclear weapons tests have historically been divided into four categories reflecting the medium or location of the test.

*'''Atmospheric''' testing designates explosions that take place in the [[Atmosphere of Earth|atmosphere]]. Generally these have occurred as devices detonated on towers, balloons, barges, islands, or dropped from airplanes, and also those only buried far enough to intentionally create a surface-breaking crater. The United States, the Soviet Union, and China have all conducted tests involving explosions of missile-launched bombs (See [[List of nuclear weapons tests#Tests of live warheads on rockets]]). Nuclear explosions close enough to the ground to draw dirt and debris into their [[mushroom cloud]] can generate large amounts of [[nuclear fallout]] due to [[irradiation]] of the debris. This definition of atmospheric is used in the [[Limited Test Ban Treaty]], which banned this class of testing along with exoatmospheric and underwater.
*'''Underground''' testing refers to nuclear tests conducted under the surface of the earth, at varying depths. [[Underground nuclear testing]] made up the majority of nuclear tests by the United States and the Soviet Union during the [[Cold War]]; other forms of nuclear testing were banned by the [[Limited Test Ban Treaty]] in 1963. True underground tests are intended to be fully contained and emit a negligible amount of fallout. Unfortunately these nuclear tests do occasionally "vent" to the surface, producing from nearly none to considerable amounts of radioactive debris as a consequence. Underground testing, almost by definition, causes [[seismic]] activity of a magnitude that depends on the [[nuclear weapon yield|yield]] of the nuclear device and the composition of the medium it is detonated in, and generally creates a [[subsidence crater]].<ref>For an overview of the preparations and considerations used in underground nuclear testing, see {{cite web|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/systems/nuke-testing.htm|title="Underground Nuclear Weapons Testing" (Globalsecurity.org)|accessdate=2006-10-19}} For a longer and more technical discussion, see {{cite book|title=The Containment of Underground Nuclear Explosions|url=http://www.nv.doe.gov/library/publications/historical/OTA-ISC-414.pdf|format=PDF|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|date=October 1989|location=Washington, D.C.|author=U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment}}</ref> In 1976, the United States and the USSR agreed to limit the maximum yield of underground tests to 150 [[kiloton|kt]] with the [[Threshold Test Ban Treaty]].<br>Underground testing also falls into two physical categories: tunnel tests in generally horizontal tunnel ''drifts'', and shaft tests in vertically drilled holes.
*'''Exoatmospheric''' testing refers to nuclear tests conducted above the atmosphere. The test devices are lifted on rockets. These [[high altitude nuclear explosion]]s can generate a [[nuclear electromagnetic pulse]] (NEMP) when they occur in the [[ionosphere]], and charged particles resulting from the blast can cross hemispheres following [[magnetosphere|geomagnetic lines of force]] to create an auroral display.
*'''Underwater''' testing results from nuclear devices being [[Underwater explosion|detonated underwater]], usually moored to a ship or a barge (which is subsequently destroyed by the explosion). Tests of this nature have usually been conducted to evaluate the effects of nuclear weapons against naval vessels (such as in [[Operation Crossroads]]), or to evaluate potential sea-based nuclear weapons (such as nuclear torpedoes or depth charges). Underwater tests close to the surface can disperse large amounts of radioactive particles in water and steam, contaminating nearby ships or structures, though they generally do not create fallout other than very local to the explosion.

===Salvo tests===

Another way to classify nuclear tests are by the number of explosions that constitute the test. The treaty definition of a salvo test is:

"In conformity with treaties between the United States and the Soviet Union, a salvo is defined, for multiple explosions for peaceful purposes, as two or more separate explosions where a period of time between successive individual explosions does not exceed 5 seconds and where the burial points of all explosive devices can be connected by segments of straight lines, each of them connecting two burial points, and the total length does not exceed 40 kilometers. For nuclear weapon tests, a salvo is defined as two or more underground nuclear explosions conducted at a test site within an area delineated by a circle having a diameter of two kilometers and conducted within a total period of time of 0.1 second."<ref>{{cite paper|title=Worldwide Nuclear Explosions| first1=Xiaoping| last1=Yang| first2=Robert| last2=North |first3=Carl| last3=Romney| first4=Paul R.| last4=Richards| url=http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~richards/my_papers/WW_nuclear_tests_IASPEI_HB.pdf}}</ref>

The USSR has exploded up to eight devices in a single salvo test; Pakistan's second and last official test exploded four different devices. Almost all lists in the literature are lists of tests; in the lists in Wikipedia (for example, ''[[Operation Cresset]]'' has separate items for ''Cremino'' and ''Caerphilly'', which together constitute a single test), the lists are of explosions.

==Purpose==
Separately from these designations, nuclear tests are also often categorized by the purpose of the test itself.

* '''Weapons-related''' tests are designed to garner information about how (and if) the weapons themselves work. Some serve to develop and validate a specific weapon type. Others test experimental concepts or are physics experiments meant to gain fundamental knowledge of the processes and materials involved in nuclear detonations.
* '''Weapons effects''' tests are designed to gain information about the effects of the weapons on structures, equipment, organisms and the environment. They are mainly used to assess and improve survivability to nuclear explosions in civilian and military contexts, tailor weapons to their targets, and develop the tactics of nuclear warfare.
* '''Safety experiments''' are designed to study the behavior of weapons in simulated accident scenarios. In particular, they are used to verify that a (significant) nuclear detonation cannot happen by accident. They include one-point safety tests and simulations of storage and transportation accidents.
* '''Nuclear test detection experiments''' are designed to improve the capabilities to detect, locate, and identify nuclear detonations, in particular to monitor compliance with test-ban treaties. In the United States these tests are associated with Operation [[Vela Uniform]] before the [[Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty]] stopped all nuclear testing among signatories.
* '''[[Peaceful nuclear explosions]]''' were conducted to investigate non-military applications of nuclear explosives. In the United States these were performed under the umbrella name of [[Operation Plowshare]].

Aside from these technical considerations, tests have been conducted for political and training purposes, and can often serve multiple purposes.

== Alternatives to full-scale testing ==
[[File:NTS - LLNL subcritical experiment.jpg|thumb|upright|Sub-critical experiment at the [[Nevada National Security Site]] ]]
'''Hydronuclear tests''' study nuclear materials under the conditions of explosive shock compression. They can create sub-critical conditions, or supercritical conditions with yields ranging from negligible all the way up to a substantial fraction of full weapon yield.<ref>{{Citation |url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Nwfaq/Nfaq4-1.html#Nfaq4.1.9 |title=Nuclear Weapons Frequently Asked Questions |at=section 4.1.9 |author=Carey Sublette |date=9 August 2001 |accessdate=10 April 2011}}</ref>

'''Critical mass experiments''' determine the quantity of fissile material required for [[critical mass|criticality]] with a variety of fissile material compositions, densities, shapes, and [[Neutron reflector|reflectors]]. They can be sub-critical or super-critical, in which case significant radiation fluxes can be produced. This type of test resulted in several [[criticality accident]]s.

'''Sub-critical (or cold) tests''' are any type of tests involving nuclear materials and possibly high-explosives (like those mentioned above) that purposely result in no [[nuclear weapon yield|yield]]. The name refers to the lack of creation of a [[critical mass]] of fissile material. They are the only type of tests allowed under the interpretation of the [[Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty]] tacitly agreed to by the major atomic powers.<ref>{{Citation |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/nuke/RL34394.pdf |title=Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty: Issues and Arguments |author=Jonathan Medalia |date=12 March 2008 |publisher=Congressional Research Service |pages=20–22 |accessdate=9 December 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite paper|last=Medalia|first=Jonathan|date=2005-03-11|title=Nuclear Weapons: Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty|publisher=Congressional Record Service|number=IB92099|url=https://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/44946.pdf|accessdate=2013-12-09}}</ref> Sub-critical tests continue to be performed by the United States, Russia, and the People's Republic of China, at least.<ref>{{cite web |language=en |url=http://zeenews.india.com/news/world/us-conducts-subcritical-nuclear-test_815260.html |accessdate=2013-05-28 |date=2012-12-07 |title=US conducts 'subcritical' nuclear test |dead-url=no |website=zeenews.india.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |language=en |url=http://barentsobserver.com/en/security/subcritical-nuke-tests-may-be-resumed-novaya-zemlya-02-10 |title=Subcritical nuke tests may be resumed at Novaya Zemlya |date=2 October 2012 |author=Thomas Nilsen |website=barentsobserver.com |access-date=2017-07-13 |dead-url=no}}</ref>

Subcritical test executed by the United States include:<ref>{{cite paper|last1=Papazian|first1=Ghazar R.|last2=Reinovsky|first2=Robert E.|last3=Beatty|first3=Jerry N.|url=https://fas.org/sgp/othergov/doe/lanl/pubs/las28/papazian.pdf|accessdate=2013-12-12|title=The New World of the Nevada Test Site|work=Los Alamos Science|issue=28|year=2003}}</ref><ref>{{cite paper|last1=Thorn|first1=Robert N.|first2=Donald R.|last2=Westervelt|date=February 1, 1987|title=Hydronuclear Experiments|journal=LANL Report LA-10902-MS|url=https://fas.org/sgp/othergov/doe/lanl/docs1/00090266.pdf|accessdate=December 9, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite paper |last=Conrad |first=David C. |date=July 1, 2000 |title=Underground explosions are music to their ears |journal=Science and Technology Review |url=http://www.llnl.gov/str/Conrad.html |accessdate=9 December 2013}}</ref>
{{clear}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+'''Subcritical Tests'''
|-
!style="background:#efefef;" | Name
!style="background:#efdead;" | Date Time ([[Universal Time|UT]]{{efn|Universal Time at the [[Nevada National Security Site]] is 8 hours after local time; UT dates are one day after local date for UT times after 16:00.}})
!style="background:#efefef;" | Location
!style="background:#efdead;" | Elevation + Height
!style="background:#efefef;" | Notes
|-
! A series of 50 tests
| {{dts|1960-1-1}}
| [[Los Alamos National Lab]] Test Area 49 {{coord|35.82289|-106.30216|display=inline}}
| {{sort|002163|}}{{convert|2183|m}} - {{convert|20|m}}
| Series of 50 tests during US/USSR joint nuclear test ban.<ref>{{cite paper |agency=Department of Energy |date=2003-02-01 |title=Nevada Test Site: U1a Complex subcritical experiments |publisher=DOE Nevada}}</ref>
|-
! ''Odyssey''
| {{dts|}}
| [[Nevada National Security Site|NTS]] Area U1a {{coord|37.01139|-116.05983|display=inline}}
| {{sort|001032|}}{{convert|1222|m}} - {{convert|190|m}}
|
|-
! ''Trumpet''
| {{dts|}}
| NTS Area U1a-102D {{coord|37.01099|-116.05848|display=inline}}
| {{sort|001032|}}{{convert|1222|m}} - {{convert|190|m}}
|
|-
! ''Kismet''
| {{dts|1995-03-01}}
| NTS Area U1a {{coord|37.01139|-116.05983|display=inline}}
| {{sort|000929|}}{{convert|1222|m}} - {{convert|293|m}}
| Kismet was a proof of concept for modern hydronuclear tests; it did not contain any SNM (Special Nuclear Material - Plutonium or Uranium).
|-
! ''Rebound''
| {{dts|1997-07-02}} 10:--:--
| NTS Area U1a {{coord|37.01139|-116.05983|display=inline}}
| {{sort|000929|}}{{convert|1222|m}} - {{convert|293|m}}
| Provided information on the behavior of new plutonium alloys compressed by high pressure shock waves; same as Stagecoach but for the age of the alloys.
|-
! ''Holog''
| {{dts|1997-09-18}}
| NTS Area U1a.101A {{coord|37.01036|-116.05888|display=inline}}
| {{sort|000932|}}{{convert|1222|m}} - {{convert|290|m}}
| Holog and Clarinet may have switched locations.
|-
! ''Stagecoach''
| {{dts|1998-03-25}}
| NTS Area U1a {{coord|37.01139|-116.05983|display=inline}}
| {{sort|000932|}}{{convert|1222|m}} - {{convert|290|m}}
| Provided information on the behavior of aged (up to 40 years) plutonium alloys compressed by high pressure shock waves.
|-
! ''Bagpipe''
| {{dts|1998-09-26}}
| NTS Area U1a.101B {{coord|37.01021|-116.05886|display=inline}}
| {{sort|000932|}}{{convert|1222|m}} - {{convert|290|m}}
|
|-
! ''Cimarron''
| {{dts|1998-12-11}}
| NTS Area U1a {{coord|37.01139|-116.05983|display=inline}}
| {{sort|000932|}}{{convert|1222|m}} - {{convert|290|m}}
| Plutonium surface ejecta studies.
|-
! ''Clarinet''
| {{dts|1999-02-09}}
| NTS Area U1a.101C {{coord|37.01003|-116.05898|display=inline}}
| {{sort|000932|}}{{convert|1222|m}} - {{convert|290|m}}
| Holog and Clarinet may have switched places on the map.
|-
! ''Oboe''
| {{dts|1999-09-30}}
| NTS Area U1a.102C {{coord|37.01095|-116.05877|display=inline}}
| {{sort|000932|}}{{convert|1222|m}} - {{convert|290|m}}
|
|-
! ''Oboe 2''
| {{dts|1999-11-09}}
| NTS Area U1a.102C {{coord|37.01095|-116.05877|display=inline}}
| {{sort|000932|}}{{convert|1222|m}} - {{convert|290|m}}
|
|-
! ''Oboe 3''
| {{dts|2000-02-03}}
| NTS Area U1a.102C {{coord|37.01095|-116.05877|display=inline}}
| {{sort|000932|}}{{convert|1222|m}} - {{convert|290|m}}
|
|-
! ''Thoroughbred''
| {{dts|2000-03-22}}
| NTS Area U1a {{coord|37.01139|-116.05983|display=inline}}
| {{sort|000932|}}{{convert|1222|m}} - {{convert|290|m}}
| Plutonium surface ejecta studies, followup to Cimarron.
|-
! ''Oboe 4''
| {{dts|2000-04-06}}
| NTS Area U1a.102C {{coord|37.01095|-116.05877|display=inline}}
| {{sort|000932|}}{{convert|1222|m}} - {{convert|290|m}}
|
|-
! ''Oboe 5''
| {{dts|2000-08-18}}
| NTS Area U1a.102C {{coord|37.01095|-116.05877|display=inline}}
| {{sort|000932|}}{{convert|1222|m}} - {{convert|290|m}}
|
|-
! ''Oboe 6''
| {{dts|2000-12-14}}
| NTS Area U1a.102C {{coord|37.01095|-116.05877|display=inline}}
| {{sort|000932|}}{{convert|1222|m}} - {{convert|290|m}}
|
|-
! ''Oboe 8''
| {{dts|2001-09-26}}
| NTS Area U1a.102C {{coord|37.01095|-116.05877|display=inline}}
| {{sort|000932|}}{{convert|1222|m}} - {{convert|290|m}}
|
|-
! ''Oboe 7''
| {{dts|2001-12-13}}
| NTS Area U1a.102C {{coord|37.01095|-116.05877|display=inline}}
| {{sort|000932|}}{{convert|1222|m}} - {{convert|290|m}}
|
|-
! ''Oboe 9''
| {{dts|2002-06-07}} 21:46:--
| NTS Area U1a.102C {{coord|37.01095|-116.05877|display=inline}}
| {{sort|000932|}}{{convert|1222|m}} - {{convert|290|m}}
|
|-
! ''Mario''
| {{dts|2002-08-29}} 19:00:--
| NTS Area U1a {{coord|37.01139|-116.05983|display=inline}}
| {{sort|000932|}}{{convert|1222|m}} - {{convert|290|m}}
| Plutonium surface studies (optical analysis of spall). Used wrought plutonium from Rocky Flats.
|-
! ''Rocco''
| {{dts|2002-09-26}} 19:00:--
| NTS Area U1a {{coord|37.01139|-116.05983|display=inline}}
| {{sort|000932|}}{{convert|1222|m}} - {{convert|290|m}}
| Plutonium surface studies (optical analysis of spall), followup to Mario. Used cast plutonium from Los Alamos.
|-
! ''Piano''
| {{dts|2003-09-19}} 20:44:--
| NTS Area U1a.102C {{coord|37.01095|-116.05877|display=inline}}
| {{sort|000932|}}{{convert|1222|m}} - {{convert|290|m}}
|
|-
! ''Armando''
| {{dts|2004-05-25}}
| NTS Area U1a {{coord|37.01139|-116.05983|display=inline}}
| {{sort|000932|}}{{convert|1222|m}} - {{convert|290|m}}
| Plutonium spall measurements using x-ray analysis.{{efn|{{YouTube|EFUUE5shMLc|A video of the ''Armando'' test}}}}
|-
! ''Step Wedge''
| {{dts|2005-04-01}}
| NTS Area U1a {{coord|37.01139|-116.05983|display=inline}}
| {{sort|001032|}}{{convert|1222|m}} - {{convert|190|m}}
| April–May 2005, a series of mini-hydronuclear experiments interpreting Armando results.
|-
! ''Unicorn''
| {{dts|2006-08-31}} 01:00:--
| NTS Area U6c {{coord|36.98663|-116.0439|display=inline}}
| {{sort|001032|}}{{convert|1222|m}} - {{convert|190|m}}
| "…confirm nuclear performance of the W88 warhead with a newly-manufactured pit." Early pit studies.
|-
! ''Thermos''
| {{dts|2007-01-01}}
| NTS Area U1a {{coord|37.01139|-116.05983|display=inline}}
| {{sort|001032|}}{{convert|1222|m}} - {{convert|190|m}}
| Feb-6 thru May 3, 2007, 12 mini-hydronuclear experiments in thermos-sized flasks.
|-
! ''Bacchus''
| {{dts|2010-09-16}}
| NTS Area U1a.05? {{coord|37.01139|-116.05983|display=inline}}
| {{sort|001032|}}{{convert|1222|m}} - {{convert|190|m}}
|
|-
! ''Barolo A''
| {{dts|2010-12-01}}
| NTS Area U1a.05? {{coord|37.01139|-116.05983|display=inline}}
| {{sort|001032|}}{{convert|1222|m}} - {{convert|190|m}}
|
|-
! ''Barolo B''
| {{dts|2011-02-02}}
| NTS Area U1a.05? {{coord|37.01139|-116.05983|display=inline}}
| {{sort|001032|}}{{convert|1222|m}} - {{convert|190|m}}
|
|-
! ''Castor''
| {{dts|2012-09-01}}
| NTS Area U1a {{coord|37.01139|-116.05983|display=inline}}
| {{sort|001032|}}{{convert|1222|m}} - {{convert|190|m}}
| Not even a subcrit, contained no plutonium; a dress rehearsal for Pollux.
|-
! ''Pollux''
| {{dts|2012-12-05}}
| NTS Area U1a {{coord|37.01139|-116.05983|display=inline}}
| {{sort|001032|}}{{convert|1222|m}} - {{convert|190|m}}
| A subcritical test with a scaled down warhead mockup.{{efn|{{YouTube|bGf4-ZOjyVY|A video of the ''Pollux'' test|link=no}}}}
|-
! ''Leda''
| {{dts|2014-06-15}}
| NTS Area U1a {{coord|37.01139|-116.05983|display=inline}}
| {{sort|001032|}}{{convert|1222|m}} - {{convert|190|m}}
| Like ''Castor'', the plutonium was replaced by a surrogate; this is a dress rehearsal for the later ''Lydia''. The target was a weapons pit mock-up.{{efn|{{YouTube|vmsfgRtxbHg|A video of the ''Leda'' test|link=no}}}}
|-
! ''Lydia''
| {{dts|2015-01-01|format=hide}}??-??-2015
| NTS Area U1a {{coord|37.01139|-116.05983|display=inline}}
| {{sort|001032|}}{{convert|1222|m}} - {{convert|190|m}}
| Expected to be a plutonium subcritical test with a scaled down warhead mockup.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}
|}

There have also been simulations of the effects of nuclear detonations using conventional explosives (such as the [[Minor Scale]] U.S. test in 1985). The explosives might be spiked with radioactive materials to simulate fallout dispersal.

==History==
{{Main|Timeline of nuclear weapons development}}
[[File:Phoenix en route to North Vietnam, 1967.jpg|thumb|right|The ''[[Phoenix of Hiroshima]]'' (foreground) in Hong Kong Harbor in 1967, was involved in several famous [[anti-nuclear]] protest voyages against nuclear testing in the Pacific.]]
[[File:Wfm sts overview.png|thumb|The 18,000 km<sup>2</sup> expanse of the [[Semipalatinsk Test Site]] (indicated in red), attached to [[Kurchatov, Kazakhstan|Kurchatov]] (along the [[Irtysh river]]). The site comprised an area [[the size of Wales]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thebulletin.org/web-edition/features/the-lasting-toll-of-semipalatinsks-nuclear-testing |title=The lasting toll of Semipalatinsk's nuclear testing |author=Togzhan Kassenova |date=28 September 2009 |work=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists }}</ref>]]

The first atomic weapons test was conducted near Alamogordo, New Mexico, on July 16, 1945, during the [[Manhattan Project]], and given the codename "[[Trinity test|Trinity]]". The test was originally to confirm that the implosion-type [[nuclear weapon design]] was feasible, and to give an idea of what the actual size and effects of a [[Effects of nuclear explosions|nuclear explosion]] would be before they were used in combat against Japan. While the test gave a good approximation of many of the explosion's effects, it did not give an appreciable understanding of [[nuclear fallout]], which was not well understood by the project scientists until well after the [[atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]].

The United States conducted six atomic tests before the Soviet Union developed their first atomic bomb ([[RDS-1]]) and tested it on August 29, 1949. Neither country had very many atomic weapons to spare at first, and so testing was relatively infrequent (when the U.S. used two weapons for ''[[Operation Crossroads]]'' in 1946, they were detonating over 20% of their current arsenal). However, by the 1950s the United States had established a dedicated test site on its own territory ([[Nevada Test Site]]) and was also using a site in the [[Marshall Islands]] ([[Pacific Proving Grounds]]) for extensive atomic and nuclear testing.

The early tests were used primarily to discern the military effects of atomic weapons (''Crossroads'' had involved the effect of atomic weapons on a navy, and how they functioned underwater) and to test new weapon designs. During the 1950s, these included new hydrogen bomb designs, which were tested in the Pacific, and also new and improved fission weapon designs. The Soviet Union also began testing on a limited scale, primarily in [[Kazakhstan]]. During the later phases of the [[Cold War]], though, both countries developed accelerated testing programs, testing many hundreds of bombs over the last half of the 20th century.

[[File:Bravo fallout2.png|left|thumb|In 1954 the [[Castle Bravo]] fallout plume spread dangerous levels of radiation over an area over 100 miles long, including inhabited islands.]]

Atomic and nuclear tests can involve many hazards. Some of these were illustrated in the U.S. [[Castle Bravo]] test in 1954. The weapon design tested was a new form of hydrogen bomb, and the scientists underestimated how vigorously some of the weapon materials would react. As a result, the explosion—with a [[nuclear weapons yield|yield]] of 15 [[TNT equivalent|Mt]]—was over twice what was predicted. Aside from this problem, the weapon also generated a large amount of radioactive [[nuclear fallout]], more than had been anticipated, and a change in the weather pattern caused the fallout to spread in a direction not cleared in advance. The fallout plume spread high levels of radiation for over a hundred miles, contaminating a number of populated islands in nearby atoll formations. Though they were soon evacuated, many of the islands' inhabitants suffered from radiation burns and later from other effects such as increased cancer rate and birth defects, as did the crew of the Japanese fishing boat ''[[Daigo Fukuryū Maru]]''. One crewman died from radiation sickness after returning to port, and it was feared that the radioactive fish they had been carrying had made it into the Japanese food supply.

[[File:US fallout exposure.png|right|thumb|Because of concerns about worldwide fallout levels, the [[Partial Test Ban Treaty]] was signed in 1963. Above are the per capita [[thyroid]] doses (in [[Rad (unit)|rads]]) in the continental United States resulting from all exposure routes from all atmospheric nuclear tests conducted at the [[Nevada Test Site]] from 1951–1962.]]

Castle Bravo was the worst U.S. nuclear accident, but many of its component problems—unpredictably large yields, changing weather patterns, unexpected fallout [[radioactive contamination|contamination]] of populations and the food supply—occurred during other atmospheric nuclear weapons tests by other countries as well. Concerns over worldwide fallout rates eventually led to the [[Partial Test Ban Treaty]] in 1963, which limited signatories to underground testing. Not all countries stopped atmospheric testing, but because the United States and the Soviet Union were responsible for roughly 86% of all nuclear tests, their compliance cut the overall level substantially. France continued atmospheric testing until 1974, and China until 1980.

A tacit moratorium on testing was in effect from 1958 to 1961, and ended with a series of Soviet tests in late 1961, including the [[Tsar Bomba]], the largest nuclear weapon ever tested. The United States responded in 1962 with [[Operation Dominic]], involving dozens of tests, including the explosion of a missile launched from a submarine.

Almost all new nuclear powers have announced their possession of nuclear weapons with a nuclear test. The only acknowledged nuclear power that claims never to have conducted a test was South Africa (although see [[Vela Incident]]), which has since dismantled all of its weapons. [[Israel]] is widely thought to possess a sizable nuclear arsenal, though it has never tested, unless they were involved in Vela. Experts disagree on whether states can have reliable nuclear arsenals—especially ones using advanced warhead designs, such as hydrogen bombs and miniaturized weapons—without testing, though all agree that it is very unlikely to develop significant nuclear innovations without testing. One other approach is to use [[supercomputer]]s to conduct "virtual" testing, but codes need to be validated against test data.

There have been many attempts to limit the number and size of nuclear tests; the most far-reaching is the [[Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty]] of 1996, which has not, {{as of|2013|lc=y}}, been ratified by eight of the "[[Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty#Status|Annex 2 countries]]" required for it to take effect, including the United States. Nuclear testing has since become a controversial issue in the United States, with a number of politicians saying that future testing might be necessary to maintain the aging warheads from the [[Cold War]]. Because nuclear testing is seen as furthering nuclear arms development, many are opposed to future testing as an acceleration of the arms race.

In [[List of nuclear weapons tests|total nuclear test megatonnage]], from 1945–92, 520 atmospheric nuclear explosions (including 8 underwater) have been conducted with a total yield of 545 [[TNT equivalent|megaton]]s,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-662-03610-5_17|title=Atmospheric Nuclear Tests|first=O. A.|last=Pavlovski|date=1 January 1998|publisher=Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg|pages=219–260|via=link.springer.com|doi=10.1007/978-3-662-03610-5_17}}</ref> with a peak occurring in 1961-62, when 340 megatons were detonated in the atmosphere by the United States and [[Soviet Union]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.atomicarchive.com/Docs/Effects/wenw_chp2.shtml|title=Radioactive Fallout - Worldwide Effects of Nuclear War - Historical Documents - atomciarchive.com|publisher=}}</ref> while the estimated number of underground nuclear tests conducted in the period from 1957 to 1992 is 1,352 explosions with a total yield of 90 Mt.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-662-03610-5_17|title=Atmospheric Nuclear Tests|first=O. A.|last=Pavlovski|date=1 January 1998|publisher=Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg|pages=219–260|via=link.springer.com|doi=10.1007/978-3-662-03610-5_17}}</ref>

<gallery>
Image:Trinity shot color.jpg|The first atomic test, "[[Trinity test|Trinity]]", took place on July 16, 1945.
Image:Sedan Plowshare Crater.jpg|The [[Sedan (nuclear test)|Sedan]] test of 1962 was an experiment by the United States in using nuclear weapons to excavate large amounts of earth.
</gallery>

==Nuclear testing by country==
{{main|List of nuclear weapons tests|France and weapons of mass destruction}}
[[File:Rael Nuclear use locations world map.png|thumb|Over 2,000 nuclear tests have been conducted, in over a dozen different sites around the world.
Red Russia/Soviet Union, blue France, light blue United States, violet Britain, black Israel, orange India, yellow China, brown Pakistan, green North Korea and light green (territories exposed to nuclear bombs)]]
[[File:Operation Crossroads Baker Edit.jpg|thumb|"Baker Shot", part of [[Operation Crossroads]], a nuclear test by the United States at [[Bikini Atoll]] in 1946]]

The nuclear powers have conducted more than 2,000 nuclear test explosions (numbers are approximate, as some test results have been disputed):

* {{flagicon|USA}} '''United States''': 1,054 tests by official count (involving at least 1,149 devices). 219 were atmospheric tests as defined by the [[Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty|CTBT]]. These tests include 904 at the [[Nevada Test Site]], 106 at the [[Pacific Proving Grounds]] and other locations in the Pacific, 3 in the South Atlantic Ocean, and 17 other tests taking place in [[Amchitka]] [[Alaska]], [[Colorado]], [[Mississippi]], [[New Mexico]] and [[Nevada]] outside the NNSS (see [[Nuclear weapons and the United States]] for details). 24 tests are classified as British tests held at the NTS. There were 35 Plowshare detonations and 7 Vela Uniform tests; 88 tests were safety experiments and 4 were transportation/storage tests.<ref>{{cite paper|publisher=Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office|date=2000-12-01|title=United States Nuclear Tests: July 1945 through September 1992|location=Las Vegas, NV|url=http://www.nv.doe.gov/library/publications/historical/DOENV_209_REV15.pdf|accessdate=2013-12-18}} This is usually cited as the "official" US list.</ref> ''[[Nuclear weapons and the United States|Link to United States' table data]].'' Motion pictures were made of the explosions, later used to validate computer simulation predictions of explosions.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/blasts-from-the-past-old-nuke-test-films-offer-new-insights-video|title=Blasts from the Past: Old Nuke Test Films Offer New Insights [Video]|last=Long|first=Kat|work=Scientific American|access-date=2017-04-24|language=en}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|USSR}} '''Soviet Union''': 715 tests (involving 969 devices) by official count, plus 13 unnumbered test failures.<ref>{{cite paper|publisher=RFNC-VNIIEF|year=1996|title=USSR Nuclear Weapons Tests and Peaceful Nuclear Explosions 1949 through 1990|location=Sarov, Russia}} The official Russian list of Soviet tests.</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Mikhailov, Editor in Chief|first1=V.N.|first2=L.A.|last2=Andryushin|first3=N.P.|last3=Voloshin|first4=R.I.|last4=Ilkaev|first5=A.M.|last5=Matushchenko|first6=L.D.|last6=Ryabev|first7=V.G.|last7=Strukov|first8=A.K.|last8=Chernyshev|first9=Yu.A.|last9=Yudin|title=Catalog of Worldwide Nuclear Testing|url=http://www.iss-atom.ru/ksenia/catal_nt/|accessdate=2013-12-28}}An equivalent list available on the internet.</ref> Most were at their Southern Test Area at [[Semipalatinsk Test Site]] and the Northern Test Area at [[Novaya Zemlya]]. Others include rocket tests and peaceful-use explosions at various sites in [[Russia]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Turkmenistan]], [[Uzbekistan]] and [[Ukraine]]. ''[[List of nuclear weapons tests of the Soviet Union|Link to Soviet Union's table data]]''
* {{flagicon|UK}} '''United Kingdom''': 45 tests (21 in [[Australia]]n territory, including three at the Montebello Islands, nine in mainland [[South Australia]] at [[British nuclear tests at Maralinga|Maralinga]] and Emu Field, some at [[Kiritimati|Christmas Island (Kirimati)]] in the [[Pacific Ocean]], plus 24 in the United States at the Nevada Test Site [[1958 US–UK Mutual Defence Agreement|as part of joint test series]])<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.awe.co.uk/main_site/about_awe/history/timeline/1958/index.html |title=UK/US Agreement |publisher=Web.archive.org |date= |accessdate=2010-10-21 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070607112924/http://www.awe.co.uk/main_site/about_awe/history/timeline/1958/index.html |archivedate = 2007-06-07}}</ref> 43 safety tests (the ''Vixen'' series) are not included in that number, though safety experiments by other countries are. ''[[Nuclear weapons and the United Kingdom|Link to the United Kingdom's summary table]]''
* {{flagicon|France}} '''France''': 210 tests by official count (50 atmospheric, 160 underground<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/rap-oecst/essais_nucleaires/i3571.asp |title=N° 3571.- Rapport de MM. Christian Bataille et Henri Revol sur les incidences environnementales et sanitaires des essais nucléaires effectués par la France entre 1960 et 1996 (Office d'évaluation des choix scientifiques et technologiques) |publisher=Assemblee-nationale.fr |date= |accessdate=2010-10-21}}</ref>), four atomic atmospheric tests at [[C.E.S.M.]] near [[Reggane]], 13 atomic underground tests at [[C.E.M.O.]] near [[In Ekker]] in the French [[Algeria]]n [[Sahara]], and nuclear atmospheric and underground tests at and around [[Fangataufa]] and [[Moruroa]] Atolls in [[French Polynesia]]. Four of the In Ekker tests are counted as peaceful use, as they were reported as part of the CET's APEX (Application pacifique des expérimentations nucléaires), and given alternate names. ''[[France and weapons of mass destruction|Link to France's summary table]]''
* {{flagicon|China}} '''China''': 45 tests (23 atmospheric and 22 underground), at [[Lop Nur]] Nuclear Weapons Test Base, in [[Malan, Xinjiang|Malan]], [[Xinjiang]]<ref>[https://fas.org/nuke/guide/china/nuke/index.html Nuclear Weapons], see also [https://fas.org/nuke/guide/china/nuke/tests.htm Nuclear Weapons Test List]</ref> There are two additional unnumbered failed tests. ''[[China's nuclear test series|Link to China's summary table]]''
* {{flagicon|India}} '''India''': Six underground explosions (including the first one in 1974), at [[Pokhran]]. ''[[India's nuclear testing series|Link to India's summary table]]''
* {{flagicon|Pakistan}} '''Pakistan''': Six underground explosions at [[Ras Koh Hills]] and the [[Chagai District]].<ref>https://fas.org/nuke/guide/pakistan/nuke/chron.htm</ref> ''[[Pakistan's nuclear testing series|Link to Pakistan's summary table]]''
* {{flagicon|North Korea}} '''North Korea''': ''[[North Korea's nuclear testing series|Link to North Korea's summary table]]'' North Korea is the only country in the world that still tests nuclear weapons, and their tests have caused [[2017 North Korea crisis|escalating tensions between them and the United States]]. Their most recent nuclear test was on [[2017 North Korean nuclear test|September 3, 2017]].

There may also have been at least three alleged but unacknowledged nuclear explosions (see [[List of nuclear tests#Alleged tests|list of alleged nuclear tests]]) including the [[Vela Incident]].

From the first nuclear test in 1945 until tests by Pakistan in 1998, there was never a period of more than 22 months with no nuclear testing. June 1998 to October 2006 was the longest period since 1945 with no acknowledged nuclear tests.

A summary table of all the nuclear testing that has happened since 1945 is here: [[Worldwide nuclear testing counts and summary]].

[[File:Worldwide nuclear testing.svg|750px|center|Graph of nuclear testing]]

==Treaties against testing==
There are many proposed anti-nuclear explosion treaties, such as the [[Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty]], and the [[Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty|Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty]]. Most of these treaties were passed because scientists in many different countries noticed spikes in radiation levels in civilian areas{{Citation needed|date=December 2013}}. Nuclear testing involving humans also contributed to the formation of the treaties, and examples can be seen in the following articles:

* [[Desert Rock exercises]]
* [[Totskoye range nuclear tests]]

The Partial Nuclear Test Ban treaty makes it illegal to detonate any nuclear explosion anywhere except underground, in order to reduce atmospheric fallout. Most countries have signed and ratified the Partial Nuclear Test Ban, which went into effect in October 1963. Of the nuclear states, France, China, and North Korea have never signed the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty.<ref>U.S. Department of State, [https://www.state.gov/t/isn/4797.htm Limited Test Ban Treaty].</ref>

The 1996 Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) bans all nuclear explosions everywhere, including underground. For that purpose, the [[Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization Preparatory Commission|Preparatory Commission of the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization]] is building an international monitoring system with 337 facilities located all over the globe. 85% of these facilities are already operational.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.ctbto.org/fileadmin/user_upload/public_information/CTBT_Ending_Nuclear_Explosions_web.pdf|title=CTBTO Factsheet: Ending Nuclear Explosions |publisher=ctbto.org |date= |accessdate=2012-05-23}}</ref> {{As of|2012|5}}, the CTBT has been signed by 183 States, of which 157 have also ratified. However, for the Treaty to enter into force it needs to be ratified by 44 specific nuclear technology-holder countries. These "Annex 2 States" participated in the negotiations on the CTBT between 1994 and 1996 and possessed nuclear power or research reactors at that time. The ratification of eight Annex 2 states is still missing: China, Egypt, Iran, Israel and the United States have signed but not ratified the Treaty; India, North Korea and Pakistan have not signed it.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.ctbto.org/the-treaty/status-of-signature-and-ratification/ |title=Status of signature and ratification |publisher=ctbto.org |date= |accessdate=2012-05-23}}</ref>

The following is a list of the treaties applicable to nuclear testing:

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name
! Agreement date
! In force date
! In effect today?
! Notes
|-

! Unilateral USSR ban
| {{dts|1958-03-31}}
| {{dts|1958-03-31}}
| no
| USSR unilaterally stops testing provided the West does as well.
|-

! Bilateral testing ban
| {{dts|1958-08-02}}
| {{dts|1958-08-02}}
| no
| USA agrees; ban begins on {{date|1958-10-31}}, {{date|1958-11-3}} for the Soviets, and lasts until abrogated by a USSR test on {{date|1961-09-01}}.
|-

! [[Antarctic Treaty|Antarctic Treaty System]]
| {{dts|1959-12-01}}
| {{dts|1961-06-23}}
| yes
| Bans testing of all kinds in Antarctica.
|-

! [[Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty]] (PTBT)
| {{dts|1962-08-05}}
| {{dts|1963-10-10}}
| yes
| Ban on all but underground testing.
|-

! [[Outer Space Treaty]]
| {{dts|1967-01-27}}
| {{dts|1967-10-10}}
| yes
| Bans testing on the moon and other celestial bodies.
|-

! [[Treaty of Tlatelolco]]
| {{dts|1967-02-14}}
| {{dts|1968-04-22}}
| yes
| Bans testing in South America and the Caribbean Sea Islands.
|-

! [[Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty]]
| {{dts|1968-01-01}}
| {{dts|1970-03-05}}
| yes
| Bans the proliferation of nuclear technology to non-nuclear nations.
|-

! [[Seabed Arms Control Treaty]]
| {{dts|1971-02-11}}
| {{dts|1972-05-18}}
| yes
| Bans emplacement of nuclear weapons on the ocean floor outside territorial waters.
|-

! [[Strategic Arms Limitation Talks|Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty]] (SALT I)
| {{dts|1972-01-01}}
|
| no
| A five-year ban on installing launchers.
|-

! [[Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty]]
| {{dts|1972-05-26}}
| {{dts|1972-08-03}}
| no
| Restricts ABM development; additional protocol added in 1974; abrogated by the USA in 2002.
|-

! [[Agreement on the Prevention of Nuclear War]]
| {{dts|1973-06-22}}
| {{dts|1973-06-22}}
| yes
| Promises to make all efforts to promote security and peace.
|-

! [[Threshold Test Ban Treaty]]
| {{dts|1974-07-01}}
| {{dts|1990-12-11}}
| yes
| Prohibits higher than 150 kt for underground testing.
|-

! [[Peaceful Nuclear Explosions Treaty]] (PNET)
| {{dts|1976-01-01}}
| {{dts|1990-12-11}}
| yes
| Prohibits higher than 150 kt, or 1500kt in aggregate, testing for peaceful purposes.
|-

! [[Moon Treaty]]
| {{dts|1979-01-01}}
| {{dts|1984-01-01}}
| no
| Bans use and emplacement of nuclear weapons on the moon and other celestial bodies.
|-

! [[Strategic Arms Limitation Talks|Strategic Arms Limitations Treaty]] (SALT II)
| {{dts|1979-06-18}}
|
| no
| Limits strategic arms. Kept but not ratified by the US, abrogated in 1986.
|-

! [[Treaty of Rarotonga]]
| {{dts|1985-08-06}}
|
| ?
| Bans nuclear weapons in South Pacific Ocean and islands. US never ratified.
|-

! [[Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces Treaty]] (INF)
| {{dts|1987-12-08}}
| {{dts|1988-06-01}}
| yes
| Eliminates Intermediate Range Ballistic Missiles (IRBMs). Implemented by {{date|1991-6-1}}. Both sides allege the other is in violation of the treaty.
|-

! [[Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe]]
| {{dts|1990-11-19}}
| {{dts|1992-07-17}}
| yes
| Bans categories of weapons, including conventional, from Europe. Russia notified signatories of intent to suspend, {{date|2007-07-14}}.
|-

! [[START I|Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty I (START I)]]
| {{dts|1991-07-31}}
| {{dts|1994-12-05}}
| no
| 35-40% reduction in ICBMs with verification. Treaty expired {{date|2009-12-5}}, renewed (see below).
|-

! [[Treaty on Open Skies]]
| {{dts|1992-03-24}}
| {{dts|2002-01-01}}
| yes
| Allows for unencumbered surveillance over all signatories.
|-

! [[US unilateral testing moratorium]]
| {{dts|1992-10-02}}
| {{dts|1992-10-02}}
| no
| George. H. W. Bush declares unilateral ban on nuclear testing.<ref name=armscontrol-ctbt>{{cite web |title=The Status of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty: Signatories and Ratifiers |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/ctbtsig |date=March 2014 |publisher=Arms Control Association |accessdate=June 29, 2014}}</ref> Extended several times, not yet abrogated.
|-

! [[START II|Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START II)]]
| {{dts|1993-01-03}}
| {{dts|2002-01-01}}
| no
| Deep reductions in ICBMs. Abrogated by Russia in 2002 in retaliation of US abrogation of ABM Treaty.
|-

! [[Southeast Asian Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone Treaty]] (Treaty of Bangkok)
| {{dts|1995-12-15}}
| {{dts|1997-03-28}}
| yes
| Bans nuclear weapons from southeast Asia.
|-

! [[African Nuclear Weapon Free Zone Treaty]] (Pelindaba Treaty)
| {{dts|1996-01-01}}
| {{dts|2009-07-16}}
| yes
| Bans nuclear weapons in Africa.
|-

! [[Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty]] (CTBT)
| {{dts|1996-09-10}}
|
| yes (effectively)
| Bans all nuclear testing, peaceful and otherwise. Strong detection and verification mechanism ([[CTBTO]]). US has signed and adheres to the treaty, though has not ratified it.
|-

! [[Treaty on Strategic Offensive Reductions]] (SORT, Treaty of Moscow)
| {{dts|2002-05-24}}
| {{dts|2003-06-01}}
| no
| Reduces warheads to 1700-2200 in ten years. Expired, replaced by START II.
|-

! [[START I]] treaty renewal
| {{dts|2010-04-08}}
| {{dts|2011-01-26}}
| yes
| Same provisions as START I.
|}

==Compensation for victims==
Over 500 atmospheric nuclear weapons tests were conducted at various sites around the world from 1945 to 1980. As public awareness and concern mounted over the possible health hazards associated with exposure to the [[nuclear fallout]], various studies were done to assess the extent of the hazard. A [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]]/ [[National Cancer Institute]] study claims that nuclear fallout might have led to approximately 11,000 excess deaths, most caused by [[thyroid cancer]] linked to exposure to [[iodine-131]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://books.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=10621|title=Exposure of the American Population to Radioactive Fallout from Nuclear Weapons Tests: A Review of the CDC-NCI Draft Report on a Feasibility Study of the Health Consequences to the American Population from Nuclear Weapons Tests Conducted by the United States and Other Nations|first=National Research|last=Council|date=11 February 2003|publisher=|doi=10.17226/10621}}</ref>
{{see also|Environmental impact of war}}
* '''United States''': Prior to March 2009, the U.S. was the only nation to compensate nuclear test victims. Since the [[Radiation Exposure Compensation Act]] of 1990, more than $1.38 billion in compensation has been approved. The money is going to people who took part in the tests, notably at the [[Nevada Test Site]], and to others exposed to the radiation.<ref name=compo>{{cite web|url=http://abcnews.go.com/International|title=International News: Latest Headlines, Video and Photographs from Around the World -- People, Places, Crisis, Conflict, Culture, Change, Analysis and Trends|first=A. B. C.|last=News|publisher=}}</ref><ref>[http://www.usdoj.gov/civil/omp/omi/Tre_SysClaimsToDateSum.pdf Radiation Exposure Compensation System: Claims to Date Summary of Claims Received by 06/11/2009]</ref>
* '''France''': In March 2009, the French Government offered to compensate victims for the first time and legislation is being drafted which would allow payments to people who suffered health problems related to the tests. The payouts would be available to victims' descendants and would include Algerians, who were exposed to nuclear testing in the Sahara in 1960. However, victims say the eligibility requirements for compensation are too narrow.<ref name=compo/>
* '''United Kingdom''': There is no formal British government compensation program. However, nearly 1,000 veterans of [[Christmas Island (Kiritimati)#Nuclear bomb tests|Christmas Island nuclear tests]] in the 1950s are engaged in legal action against the Ministry of Defense for negligence. They say they suffered health problems and were not warned of potential dangers before the experiments.<ref name=compo/>
* '''Russia''': Decades later, Russia offered compensation to veterans who were part of the 1954 Totsk test. However, there was no compensation to civilians sickened by the Totsk test. Anti-nuclear groups say there has been no government compensation for other nuclear tests.<ref name=compo/>
* '''China''': China has undertaken highly secretive atomic tests in remote deserts in a Central Asian border province. Anti-nuclear activists say there is no known government program for compensating victims.<ref name=compo/>
{{Milestone nuclear explosions}}

==See also==
{|
|- valign="top"
|
* [[Atomic Testing Museum]] (in Nevada in the US)
* [[Effects of nuclear explosions]]
* [[High altitude nuclear explosion]]
* [[List of nuclear weapons tests of the Soviet Union]]
* [[List of nuclear weapons tests of the United States]]
* [[Historical nuclear weapons stockpiles and nuclear tests by country]]
* [[History of nuclear weapons]]
* ''[[How to Photograph an Atomic Bomb]]''
* [[List of military nuclear accidents]] (including nuclear weapons accidents)
* [[List of nuclear weapons tests]]
* [[List of states with nuclear weapons]]
* [[Live fire exercise]]
|
* [[National Technical Means]]
* [[Nuclear weapons design]]
* [[Partial Test Ban Treaty]]
* [[Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty]]
* [[Project Gnome]]
* [[Test Readiness Program]]
* [[Underwater explosion]]
* [[:Category:Nuclear test sites]]
* ''[[Trinity and Beyond]]'' (documentary about nuclear weapon testing)
* {{Wikipedia books link|The Atomic Age}}
|}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==Citations==
{{reflist}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}

* Gusterson, Hugh. ''Nuclear Rites: A Weapons Laboratory at the End of the Cold War.'' Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1996.
* Hacker, Barton C. ''Elements of Controversy: The Atomic Energy Commission and Radiation Safety in Nuclear Weapons Testing, 1947–1974.'' Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1994.
* Schwartz, Stephen I. ''Atomic Audit: The Costs and Consequences of U.S. Nuclear Weapons.'' Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1998.
* Weart, Spencer R. ''Nuclear Fear: A History of Images.'' Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1985.
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Nuclear weapon tests}}
*[https://fas.org/nuke/intro/nuke/index.html Federation of American Scientists]
*[http://www.ctbto.org/ Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban-Treaty Organization]
*[http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/index.html Nuclear Weapon Archive]
*[http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/issues/testing/ NuclearFiles.org]
*[http://www.bikiniatoll.com/whatrad.html What About Radiation on Bikini Atoll?]
*{{YouTube|WAnqRQg-W0k|"Time-lapse map of all nuclear weapon tests from 1945 to 1998."}}
*[http://thebulletin.org/ Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]
*[http://alsos.wlu.edu/default.aspx Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues]
*[http://www.atomcentral.com Atomic Bomb website and nuclear weapon testing articles]
*[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/nuclear-history-documents/ The Woodrow Wilson Center's Nuclear Proliferation International History Project]

{{US Nuclear Tests}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Portal bar|Nuclear technology|War}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nuclear Weapons Testing}}
[[Category:Nuclear weapons|Testing]]
[[Category:Nuclear weapons testing| ]]

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