Platypus: Difference between revisions

Platypus
Conservation status
	; Least Concern
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Mammalia
Order:	Monotremata
Family:	Ornithorhynchidae
Genus:	Ornithorhynchus; Blumenbach, 1800
Species:	O. anatinus
Binomial name
	Ornithorhynchus anatinus; (Shaw, 1799)
	Platypus range (indicated by darker shading)

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The platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus) is a semi-aquatic mammal endemic to eastern Australia and Tasmania. Together with four species of echidna, it is one of the five species of monotremes, the only mammals that lay eggs instead of giving birth to live young. It is the sole living representative of its family (Ornithorhynchidae) and genus (Ornithorhynchus), though a number of related species have been found in the fossil record.

The bizarre appearance of this egg-laying, duck-billed mammal baffled naturalists when it was first discovered, with some considering it an elaborate fraud. It is one of the few venomous mammals: male platypuses have a spur on the hind foot which delivers a poison capable of causing severe pain to humans. The unique features of the platypus make it an important subject in the study of evolutionary biology and a recognizable and iconic symbol of Australia; it has appeared as a mascot at national events and is featured on the reverse of the Australian 20-cent coin.

Until the early 20th century it was hunted for its fur, but it is now protected throughout its range. Although captive breeding programs have had only limited success and the platypus is vulnerable to the effects of pollution, it is not under any immediate threat.

Taxonomy and etymology

When the platypus was first discovered by Europeans in the late 1700s, a pelt and sketch were sent back to the United Kingdom by Captain John Hunter, the second Governor of New South Wales.^[3] The British scientists were at first convinced that the odd collection of physical attributes must have been a hoax.^[2] George Shaw, who produced the first description of the animal in the Naturalist's Miscellany in 1799 stated that it was impossible not to entertain doubts as to its genuine nature, and Robert Knox believed it may have been produced by some Asian taxidermist.^[4] It was thought that somebody had sewn a duck's beak onto the body of a beaver-like animal. Shaw even took a pair of scissors to the dried skin to check for stitches.^[2]

The common name, platypus, is Latin derived from the Greek words πλατύς ("platys", flat) and πους ("pous", foot), meaning "flat foot".^[5] The term was given to it as a Linnaean genus name by Shaw when he initially described it, but it was soon discovered to already belong to the wood-boring ambrosia beetle (genus Platypus).^[6] It was independently described as Ornithorhynchus paradoxus by Johann Blumenbach in 1800 (from a specimen given to him by Sir Joseph Banks)^[7] and following the rules of priority of nomenclature it was later officially recognised as Ornithorhynchus anatinus.^[6] The scientific name Ornithorhynchus is derived from ορνιθόρυγχος ("ornithorhynkhos"), which literally means "bird snout" in Greek, and anatinus which means "duck-like" in Latin.

There is no universally agreed upon plural of "platypus" in the English language. Scientists generally use "platypuses", "platypoda", or simply "platypus". Colloquially, "platypi" is also used for the plural, although this is pseudo-Latin.^[2] Early British settlers called it by many names, such as watermole, duckbill, and duckmole.^[2] The name platypus is often prefixed with the adjective "duck-billed" to form duck-billed platypus, despite there being only one species of platypus. To Australian aborigines the platypus is known as mallangong, tambreet or boonaburra.^[8]

Description

The body and the broad, flat tail of the platypus is covered with dense brown fur that traps a layer of insulating air to keep the animal warm.^[2]^[6] The platypus uses its tail for storage of fat reserves, an adaptation it shares with the Tasmanian Devil.^[9] It has webbed feet and a large, rubbery snout; these are features that appear closer to those of a duck than to those of any known mammal. The webbing is more significant on the front feet and is folded back when walking on land.^[6] Unlike a bird's beak (in which both the upper and lower parts of the beak separate to reveal its mouth), the snout of the platypus is a sensory organ with the mouth on the underside. The nostrils are located on the dorsal surface of the snout while the eyes and ears are located in a groove set just back from it; this groove is closed when swimming.^[6] Platypuses have been heard to emit a low growl when disturbed and a range of other vocalisations have been reported in captive specimens.^[2]

Weight varies considerably from 700 g (1.54 lb) to 2.4 kg (5.3 lb) with males being larger than females: males average 50 cm (20 in) total length while females average 43 cm (17 in).^[6] There is substantial variation in average size from one region to another, and this pattern does not seem to follow any particular climatic rule and may be due to other environmental factors such as predation and human encroachment.^[10]

The platypus has an average body temperature of 31–32 °C (88–90 °F) rather than the 38 °C (100 °F) typical of placental mammals.^[11] Research suggests this has been a gradual adaptation to harsh environmental conditions on the part of the small number of surviving monotreme species rather than a historical characteristic of monotremes.^[12]^[13]

Modern platypus young have three-cusped molars which they lose before or just after leaving the breeding burrow;^[14]^[15] adults have heavily keratinised pads in their place.^[6] The platypus jaw is constructed differently from that of other mammals, and the jaw opening muscle is different.^[6] As in all true mammals, the tiny bones that conduct sound in the middle ear are fully incorporated into the skull, rather than lying in the jaw as in cynodonts and other pre-mammalian synapsids. However, the external opening of the ear still lies at the base of the jaw.^[6] The platypus has extra bones in the shoulder girdle, including an interclavicle, which is not found in other mammals.^[6] It has a reptilian gait, with legs that are on the sides of the body, rather than underneath.^[6]

Venom

The male platypus has venomous ankle spurs which produce a cocktail of venom, composed largely of defensin-like proteins (DLPs), which are unique to the platypus.^[16] Although powerful enough to kill smaller animals,^[16] the venom is not lethal to humans, but does produce excruciating pain — so intense that the victim may be incapacitated. Oedema rapidly develops around the wound and gradually spreads throughout the affected limb. Information obtained from case histories and anecdotal evidence indicates that the pain develops into a long-lasting hyperalgesia that persists for days or even months.^[17]^[18] Venom is produced in the crural glands of the male, which are kidney-shaped alveolar glands connected by a thin-walled duct to a calcaneus spur on each hind limb. Female platypuses, in common with echidnas, have rudimentary spur buds which do not develop (dropping off before the end of their first year) and lack functional crural glands.^[6]

The venom appears to have a different function from those produced by non-mammalian species: its effects are non-life threatening but nevertheless powerful enough to seriously impair the victim. Since only males produce venom and production rises during the breeding season it is theorized that it is used as an offensive weapon to assert dominance during this period.^[16]

Electrolocation

Monotremes are the only mammals known to have a sense of electroception: they locate their prey in part by detecting electric fields generated by muscular contractions. The platypus' electroception is the most sensitive of any monotreme.^[19]

The electroreceptors are located in rostro-caudal rows in the skin of the bill, while mechanoreceptors (which detect touch) are uniformly distributed across the bill. The electrosensory area of the cerebral cortex is contained within the tactile somatosensory area, and some cortical cells receive input from both electroreceptors and mechanoreceptors, suggesting a close association between the tactile and electric senses. The platypus can determine the direction of an electric source, perhaps by comparing differences in signal strength across the sheet of electroreceptors. This would explain the animal's characteristic side-to-side motion of its head while hunting. The cortical convergence of electrosensory and tactile inputs suggests a mechanism for determining the distance of prey items which, when they move, emit both electrical signals and mechanical pressure pulses, which would also allow for computation of distance from the difference in time of arrival of the two signals.^[19]

The platypus feeds by digging in the bottom of streams with its bill. The electroreceptors could be used to distinguish animate and inanimate objects in this situation (in which the mechanoreceptors would be continuously stimulated).^[19] When disturbed, its prey would generate tiny electrical currents in their muscular contractions which the sensitive electroreceptors of the platypus could detect. Experiments have shown that the platypus will even react to an 'artificial shrimp' if a small electrical current is passed through it.^[20]

Ecology and behaviour

The platypus is very hard to spot even on the surface of a river.

The platypus is semi-aquatic, inhabiting small streams and rivers over an extensive range from the cold highlands of Tasmania and the Australian Alps to the tropical rainforests of coastal Queensland as far north as the base of the Cape York Peninsula.^[21] Inland, its distribution is not well known: it is extinct in South Australia (bar an introduced population on Kangaroo Island)^[22] and is no longer found in the main part of the Murray-Darling Basin, possibly due to the declining water quality brought about by extensive land clearing and irrigation schemes.^[23] Along the coastal river systems, its distribution is unpredictable; it appears to be absent from some relatively healthy rivers, and yet maintains a presence in others that are quite degraded (the lower Maribyrnong, for example).^[24]

In captivity platypuses have survived to seventeen years of age and wild specimens have been recaptured at eleven years old. Mortality rates for adults in the wild appear to be low.^[6] Natural predators include snakes, water rats, goannas, hawks, owls and eagles, and low platypus numbers in the northern Australia are possibly due to predation by crocodiles.^[25] The introduction of red foxes as a predator for rabbits may have had some impact on its numbers on the mainland.^[10] The platypus is generally regarded as nocturnal and crepuscular, but individuals are also active during the day, particularly when the sky is overcast.^[26]^[27] Its habitat bridges rivers and the riparian zone for both a food supply of prey species and banks where it can dig resting and nesting burrows.^[27] It may have a range of up to 7 km (4.4 mi) with male's home ranges overlapping with those of 3 or 4 females.^[28]

The platypus is an excellent swimmer and spends much of its time in the water foraging for food. When swimming it can be distinguished from other Australian mammals by the absence of visible ears.^[29] Uniquely among mammals it propels itself when swimming by alternate rowing motion with the front two feet; although all four feet of the platypus are webbed, the hind feet (which are held against the body) do not assist in propulsion, but are used for steering in combination with the tail.^[30] The species is endothermic, maintaining its low body temperature, even while foraging for hours in water below 5 °C (41 °F).^[6]

Dives normally last around 30 seconds, but can last longer although few exceed the estimated aerobic limit of 40 seconds. 10 to 20 seconds are commonly spent in recovery at the surface.^[31]^[32] The platypus is a carnivore: it feeds on annelid worms and insect larvae, freshwater shrimps, and yabbies (freshwater crayfish) that it digs out of the riverbed with its snout or catches while swimming. It utilizes cheek-pouches to carry prey to the surface where they are eaten.^[29] The platypus needs to eat about 20% of its own weight each day. This requires the platypus to spend an average of 12 hours each day looking for food.^[31] When not in the water, the platypus retires to a short, straight resting burrow of oval cross-section, nearly always in the riverbank not far above water level, and often hidden under a protective tangle of roots.^[29]

Reproduction

When the platypus was first discovered scientists were divided over whether the female laid eggs. This was not confirmed until 1884 when W.H. Caldwell was sent to Australia where, after extensive searching assisted by a team 150 aborigines, he managed to discover a few eggs.^[6]^[16]

The species exhibits a single breeding season, with mating occurring between June and October, with some local variation taking place in populations across the extent of its range.^[25] Historical observation, mark and recapture studies and preliminary investigations of population genetics indicate the possibility of resident and transient members of populations and suggest a polygynous mating system.^[33] Females are thought likely to become sexual mature in their second year, with breeding confirmed to still take place in animals over nine years old.^[33]

Outside the mating season, the platypus lives in a simple ground burrow whose entrance is about 30 cm (1 ft) above the water level. After mating, the female constructs a deeper, more elaborate burrow up to 20 m (66 ft) long and blocked with plugs at intervals (which may act as a safeguard against rising waters or predators, or as a method of regulating humidity and temperature).^[34] The male takes no part in caring for its young, and retreats to its yearlong burrow. The female softens the ground in the burrow with dead, folded, wet leaves and she fills the nest at the end of the tunnel with fallen leaves and reeds for bedding material. This material is dragged to the nest by tucking it underneath her curled tail.^[2]

The female platypus has a pair of ovaries but only the left one is functional.^[26] It lays one to three (usually two) small, leathery eggs (similar to those of reptiles), that are about 11 mm (7/16 in) in diameter and slightly rounder than bird eggs.^[35] The eggs develop in utero for about 28 days with only about 10 days of external incubation (in contrast to a chicken egg which spends about 1 day in tract and 28 days externally).^[26] After laying her eggs, the female curls around them. The incubation period is separated into three parts. In the first, the embryo has no functional organs and relies on the yolk sac for sustenance. During the second, the digits develop, and in the last, the egg tooth appears.^[36]

The newly hatched young are vulnerable, blind, and hairless, and are fed by the mother's milk. Although possessing mammary glands, the platypus lacks teats. Instead, milk is released through pores in the skin. There are grooves on her abdomen that form pools of milk, allowing the young to lap it up.^[2]^[25] After they hatch, the offspring are suckled for three to four months. During incubation and weaning, the mother initially only leaves the burrow for short periods to forage. When doing so, she creates a number of thin soil plugs along the length of burrow possibly to protect the young from predators; pushing past these on her return forces water from her fur and allows the burrow to remain dry.^[37] After about five weeks, the mother begins to spend more time away from her young and at around four months the young emerge from the burrow.^[25]

In mammalian evolution

The platypus and other monotremes were very poorly understood for many years and some of the 19th century myths that grew up around them, for example, that the monotremes were "inferior" or quasi-reptilian, still endure.^[38] It is now generally accepted that modern monotremes are the survivors of an early branching of the mammal tree; a later branching is thought to have led to the marsupial and placental groups.^[39]^[38] Although in 1947, W.K. Gregory had theorized that placental mammals and marsupials may have diverged earlier with a subsequent branching dividing the monotremes and marsupials, later research and fossil discoveries have suggested this is incorrect.^[38]^[40] Due to the unique combination of its features the platypus is also a topic in arguments over Darwinian evolution and intelligent design, with both sides claiming that its existence gives weight to their theory.^[41]^[42]

The oldest discovered fossil of the modern platypus dates back to about 100,000 years ago, during the Quaternary period. The extinct monotremes (Teinolophos and Steropodon) were closely related to the modern platypus.^[40] The fossilised Steropodon was discovered in New South Wales and is composed of an opalised lower jawbone with three molar teeth (whereas the adult contemporary platypus is toothless). The molar teeth were initially thought to be tribosphenic which would have supported a variation of Gregory's theory, but later research has suggested while they have three cusps they evolved under a separate process.^[14] The fossil is thought to be about 110 million years old, which means that the platypus-like animal was alive during the Cretaceous period, making it the oldest mammal fossil found in Australia. Monotrematum sudamericanum, another fossil relative of the platypus has been found in Argentina, indicating that monotremes were present in the supercontinent of Gondwana when the continents of South America and Australia were joined via Antarctica (up to about 167 million years ago).^[14]^[43]

Because of the early divergence from the therian mammals and the low numbers of extant monotreme species, it is a frequent subject of research in evolutionary biology. In 2004, researchers at the Australian National University discovered the platypus has ten sex chromosomes, compared to two (XY) found in most other mammals (for instance, a male platypus is always XYXYXYXYXY). Furthermore, one of the platypus’s Y chromosomes shares genes with the ZZ/ZW sex chromosomes found in birds. This news further pronounced the individuality of the platypus in the animal kingdom.^[44]

Conservation status

Except for its loss from the state of South Australia, the platypus occupies the same general distribution as it did prior to European settlement of Australia. However, local changes and fragmentation of distribution due to human modification of its habitat are documented. Its current and historical abundance, however, is less well known and it has probably declined in numbers, although still being considered as common over most of its current range.^[27] The species was extensively hunted for its fur until the early years of the 20th century and, although protected throughout Australia in 1905,^[37] up until about 1950 it was still at risk of drowning in the nets of inland fisheries.^[23] The platypus does not appear to be in immediate danger of extinction thanks to conservation measures, but it could be impacted by habitat disruption caused by dams, irrigation, pollution, netting and trapping.^[1] The IUCN lists the platypus on its Red List as Least Concern.^[1]

A depiction of a platypus from a book for children published in Germany in 1798

A fungal infection poses a possible threat to platypuses in Tasmania. The fungus, Mucor amphiborum causes ulceration on the body that can lead to problems with thermoregulation and death from secondary infections. The same fungus so far causes no problems to the platypus on the Australian mainland. The Tasmania Parks and Wildlife Service and Biodiversity Conservation Branch Department of Primary Industries and Water are collaborating to monitor the effects of the infection on the platypus population in Tasmania.^[45] Platypuses in Tasmania tend to be larger than those found in the mainland of Australia, possibly because of the lack of introduced predators. The failure to establish the red fox in particular is theorized to be a contributing factor to both the greater average size and abundance of the platypus in the state.^[10]

Much of the world was introduced to the platypus in 1939 when National Geographic magazine published an article on the platypus and the efforts to study and raise it in captivity. This is a difficult task, and only a few young have been successfully raised since — notably at Healesville Sanctuary in Victoria. The leading figure in these efforts was David Fleay who established a platypussary — a simulated stream in a tank — at the Healesville Sanctuary and had a successful breeding in 1943. In 1972, he found a dead baby of about 50 days old, which had presumably been born in captivity, at his wildlife park at Burleigh Heads on the Gold Coast, Queensland.^[46] Healesville repeated its success in 1998 and again in 2000 with a similar stream tank. Taronga Zoo in Sydney bred twins in 2003, and had another birth in 2006.^[47]

In popular culture

File:Oz20cent.jpg

The Australian 20 cent coin features a platypus

The platypus is sometimes jokingly referred to as "proof that God has a sense of humor", and its unusual appearance has led to its appearance in many media, particularly in its native Australia. The platypus has been used several times as a mascot: "Syd" the platypus was one of the three mascots chosen for the Sydney 2000 Olympics along with an echidna and a Kookaburra,^[48] while Hexley the platypus is the mascot for Apple Computer's BSD-based Darwin operating system, Mac OS X.^[49] A platypus named Phyl appears in several of the books written by Timothy Budd. Phyl is used to illustrate two important principles of object-oriented programming: inheritance and overriding.^[50] The satirist Barry Humphries exhibited the box of a mock pesticide product called "Platytox" during his early surrealist period.^[51] Experimental rock band Mr. Bungle has a track named after the creature on their second major album, Disco Volante.^[52]

Platypuses are frequently seen in children's cartoons: a platypus named Ovide was the star of the cartoon Ovide and the Gang;^[53] two platypuses appear in the cartoon Taz-Mania; a young platypus named Flap is a regular character in each of the Blinky Bill cartoon series; and in the animated show Camp Lazlo, the character of Edward is a platypus. In 1995, United Paramount Network broadcast a short-lived television series entitled Platypus Man, starring comedian Richard Jeni. The title came from a joke, repeated at the beginning of each episode, comparing the platypus' solitary behavior with the lead character's personal life.

Notes

^ ^a ^b ^c Template:IUCN2006 Database entry includes a brief justification of why this species is of least concern
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ "Platypus facts file". Australian Platypus Conservancy. Retrieved 13 September. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
^ Brian K. Hall (1999-03). "The Paradoxical Platypus". BioScience. 49 (3). American Institute of Biological Sciences: 211–218. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
^ "Duck-billed Platypus". Museum of hoaxes. Retrieved 14 September. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
^ Liddell & Scott (1980). Greek-English Lexicon, Abridged Edition. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. ISBN 0-19-910207-4.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o J.R.Grant. "Fauna of Australia chap.16 vol.1b" (PDF). Australian Biological Resources Study (ABRS). Retrieved 13 September. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
^ "Platypus Paradoxes". National Library of Australia. 2001-08. Retrieved 14 September. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
^ "The Platypus". Department of Anatomy & Physiology, University of Tasmania. 1997-07-03. Retrieved 14 September. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help); line feed character in |publisher= at position 36 (help)
^ Guiler, E.R. (1983). "Tasmanian Devil". In R. Strahan Ed. (ed.). The Australian Museum Complete Book of Australian Mammals. Angus & Robertson. pp. 27–28. ISBN 0-207-14454-0.
^ ^a ^b ^c Sarah Munks and Stewart Nicol (1999-05). "Current research on the platypus, Ornithorhynchus anatinus in Tasmania: Abstracts from the 1999 'Tasmanian Platypus WORKSHOP'". University of Tasmania. Retrieved 23 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
^ "Thermal Biology of the Platypus". Davidson College. 1999. Retrieved 14 September. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
^ J.M. Watson and J.A.M. Graves (1988). "Monotreme Cell-Cycles and the Evolution of Homeothermy". Australian Journal of Zoology. 36 (5). CSIRO: 573–584.
^ T.J. Dawson, T.R. Grant and D. Fanning (1979). "Standard Metabolism of Monotremes and the Evolution of Homeothermy". Australian Journal of Zoology. 27 (4). CSIRO: 511–515.
^ ^a ^b ^c Pascual, R., Goin, F.J., Balarino, L., and Udrizar Sauthier, D.E. (2002). "New data on the Paleocene monotreme Monotrematum sudamericanum, and the convergent evolution of triangulate molars" (PDF). Acta Palaeontologica Polonica. 47 (3): 487–492.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Hugh Race. "Living mammals are placentals (eutheria), marsupials, and monotremes". Geowords. Retrieved 19 September. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Gerritsen, Vivienne Baillie (2002-12). "Platypus poison". Protein Spotlight (29). Retrieved 14 September. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
^ G. M. de Plater, P. J. Milburn and R. L. Martin (2001-3). "Venom From the Platypus, Ornithorhynchus anatinus, Induces a Calcium-Dependent Current in Cultured Dorsal Root Ganglion Cells". Journal of Neurophysiology. 85 (3). American Physiological Society: 1340–1345. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
^ "The venom of the platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus)". Retrieved 13 September. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
^ ^a ^b ^c Pettigrew, John D. (1999). "Electroreception in Monotremes" (PDF). The Journal of Experimental Biology (202): 1447–1454. Retrieved 19 September. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
^ Manning, A & Dawkins, M.S. (1998). An Introduction to Animal Behaviour Fifth Edition. Cambridge University Press.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ "Platypus". Department of Primary Industries and Water, Tasmania. 2006-08-31. Retrieved 12 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
^ "Research on Kangaroo Island". University of Adelaide. 2006-07-04. Retrieved 23 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
^ ^a ^b Anthony Scott and Tom Grant (1997-11). "Impacts of water management in the Murray-Darling Basin on the platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus) and the water rat (Hydromus chrysogaster)" (PDF). CSIRO Australia. Retrieved 23 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
^ "Platypus in Country Areas". Australian Platypus Conservancy. Retrieved 23 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d "Platypus". Environmental Protection Agency/Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service. 2006. Retrieved 24 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
^ ^a ^b ^c Erica Cromer (2004-04-14). "Monotreme Reproductive Biology and Behavior". Iowa State University. Retrieved 23 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
^ ^a ^b ^c T.G. Grant and P. D. Temple-Smith (1998-07-29). "Field Biology of the Platypus (Ornithorhynchus Anatinus): Historical and Current Perspectives" (PDF). Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences. 353 (1372). The Royal Society: 1081–1091.
^ J.L. Gardner and M. Serena (1995). "Spatial-Organization and Movement Patterns of Adult Male Platypus, Ornithorhynchus-Anatinus (Monotremata, Ornithorhynchidae)". Australian Journal of Zoology. 43 (1). CSIRO: 91–103.
^ ^a ^b ^c "Platypus" (PDF). Parks and Wildlife Service Tasmania. 2003-12. Retrieved 23 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
^ F.E. Fish, R.V. Baudinette, P.B. Frappell, and M.P. Sarre (1997-07-28). "Energetics of Swimming by the Platypus Ornithorhynchus Anatinus: Metabolic Effort Associated with Rowing" (PDF). The Journal of Experimental Biology. 200 (20). The Company of Biologists Limited: 2647–2652. {{cite journal}}: line feed character in |title= at position 69 (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ ^a ^b Philip Bethge (2002-04). "Energetics and foraging behaviour of the platypus" (PDF). University of Tasmania. Retrieved 23 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
^ H. Kruuk (1993). "The Diving Behaviour of the Platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus) in Waters with Different Trophic Status". The Journal of Applied Ecology. 30 (4): 592–598.
^ ^a ^b T.R. Grant, M. Griffiths and R.M.C. Leckie. "Aspects of Lactation in the Platypus, Ornithorhynchus anatinus (Monotremata), in Waters of Eastern New South Wales". Australian Journal of Zoology. 31 (6). 1983: 881–889.
^ Anna Bess Sorin and Phil Myers (2001). "Family Ornithorhynchidae (platypus)". University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Retrieved 24 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help); line feed character in |title= at position 25 (help)
^ R. L. Hughes and L. S. Hall (1998-07-29). "Early development and embryology of the platypus" (PDF). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 353 (1372). The Royal Society: 1101–1114.
^ Paul R. Manger, Leslie S. Hall, John D. Pettigrew (1998-07-29). "The Development of the External Features of the Platypus (Ornithorhynchus Anatinus)" (PDF). Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences. 353 (1372). The Royal Society: 1115–1125.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ ^a ^b "Egg-laying mammals" (PDF). Queensland Museum. 2000-11. Retrieved 24 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
^ ^a ^b ^c John A. W. Kirsch and Gregory C. Mayer (1998-07-29). "The Platypus is not a Rodent: DNA Hybridization, Amniote Phylogeny and the Palimpsest Theory" (PDF). Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences. 353 (1372): 1221–1237.
^ M. Messer, A.S. Weiss, D.C. Shaw and M. Westerman (1998-03). "Evolution of the Monotremes: Phylogenetic Relationship to Marsupials and Eutherians, and Estimation of Divergence Dates Based on α-Lactalbumin Amino Acid Sequences". Journal of Mammalian Evolution. 5 (1). Springer Netherlands: 95–105. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ ^a ^b O. W. M. Rauhut, T. Martin, E. Ortiz-Jaureguizar and P. Puerta (2001-12-11). "The first Jurassic mammal from South America". Nature. Retrieved 24 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Jonathan Witt (2004-08-01). "The Gods Must Be Tidy! Is the Cosmos a Work of Poor Engineering or the Gift of an Artistic Designer?". Touchstone Magazine. The Discovery Institute. Retrieved 24 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
^ Josh Gilder (2001-09-24). "PBS's 'Evolution' series is propaganda, not science". World Net Daily. The Discovery Institute. Retrieved 24 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
^ Tim Folger (1993-01). "A platypus in Patagonia — Ancient life". Discover. Retrieved 17 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
^ Jocelyn Selim (2005-04-25). "Sex, Ys, and Platypuses". Discover. Retrieved 13 September. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
^ "Platypus Disease Threat". Department of Primary Industries and Water, Tasmania. 2006-09-05. Retrieved 12 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
^ "David Fleay's achievements". Queenland Government. 2003-11-23. Retrieved 13 September. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
^ "Platypus". Catalyst. 2003-11-13. Retrieved 13 September. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
^ "A Brief History of the Olympic and Paralympic Mascots". Bejing2008. 2004-08-05. Retrieved 25 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
^ "The Home of Hexley the Platypus". Retrieved 25 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
^ "An Introduction to Object-Oriented Programming". Retrieved 26 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help); line feed character in |title= at position 19 (help)
^ "Barry Humphries". Picture Australia. Retrieved 25 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
^ "Disco Volante Track Listing". Amazon. Retrieved 25 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
^ "Ovide and the Gang". IMDB. Retrieved 25 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)

References

Books

Augee, Michael L. Platypus. World Book Encyclopedia. 2001 ed.
Burrell, H. The Platypus. Adelaide: Rigby, 1974.
Grant, Tom. The platypus: a unique mammal. Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 1995. ISBN 0-86840-143-9.
Griffiths, Mervyn. The Biology of the Monotremes. Academic Press, 1978.
Groves, C. P. (2005). Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M. (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 2. ISBN 0-801-88221-4. OCLC 62265494.
Michael Hutch, Melissa C. McDade, eds. Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia; Volume 12. Detroit: Gale, 2004.
Moyal, Ann. Platypus: The Extraordinary Story of How a Curious Creature Baffled the World. Smithsonian Books, 2001. ISBN 1-56098-977-7.
Strahan, R. The Mammals of Australia. New South Wales: Reed Books, 1995.

Documentary

Eye of the Storm. Documentary by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation.

External links

Template:Link FA

[IUCN-1] Template:IUCN2006 Database entry includes a brief justification of why this species is of least concern

[APC-2] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ "Platypus facts file". Australian Platypus Conservancy. Retrieved 13 September. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)

[Paradox-3] Brian K. Hall (1999-03). "The Paradoxical Platypus". BioScience. 49 (3). American Institute of Biological Sciences: 211–218. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

[hoax-4] "Duck-billed Platypus". Museum of hoaxes. Retrieved 14 September. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)

[5] Liddell & Scott (1980). Greek-English Lexicon, Abridged Edition. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. ISBN 0-19-910207-4.

[ABRS-6] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o J.R.Grant. "Fauna of Australia chap.16 vol.1b" (PDF). Australian Biological Resources Study (ABRS). Retrieved 13 September. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)

[NLA-7] "Platypus Paradoxes". National Library of Australia. 2001-08. Retrieved 14 September. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)

[UT-8] "The Platypus". Department of Anatomy & Physiology, University of Tasmania. 1997-07-03. Retrieved 14 September. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help); line feed character in |publisher= at position 36 (help)

[Guiler-9] Guiler, E.R. (1983). "Tasmanian Devil". In R. Strahan Ed. (ed.). The Australian Museum Complete Book of Australian Mammals. Angus & Robertson. pp. 27–28. ISBN 0-207-14454-0.

[Workshop-10] Sarah Munks and Stewart Nicol (1999-05). "Current research on the platypus, Ornithorhynchus anatinus in Tasmania: Abstracts from the 1999 'Tasmanian Platypus WORKSHOP'". University of Tasmania. Retrieved 23 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)

[DC-11] "Thermal Biology of the Platypus". Davidson College. 1999. Retrieved 14 September. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)

[temp-12] J.M. Watson and J.A.M. Graves (1988). "Monotreme Cell-Cycles and the Evolution of Homeothermy". Australian Journal of Zoology. 36 (5). CSIRO: 573–584.

[temp2-13] T.J. Dawson, T.R. Grant and D. Fanning (1979). "Standard Metabolism of Monotremes and the Evolution of Homeothermy". Australian Journal of Zoology. 27 (4). CSIRO: 511–515.

[MS-14] Pascual, R., Goin, F.J., Balarino, L., and Udrizar Sauthier, D.E. (2002). "New data on the Paleocene monotreme Monotrematum sudamericanum, and the convergent evolution of triangulate molars" (PDF). Acta Palaeontologica Polonica. 47 (3): 487–492.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[geowords-15] Hugh Race. "Living mammals are placentals (eutheria), marsupials, and monotremes". Geowords. Retrieved 19 September. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)

[PS-16] Gerritsen, Vivienne Baillie (2002-12). "Platypus poison". Protein Spotlight (29). Retrieved 14 September. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)

[JN-17] G. M. de Plater, P. J. Milburn and R. L. Martin (2001-3). "Venom From the Platypus, Ornithorhynchus anatinus, Induces a Calcium-Dependent Current in Cultured Dorsal Root Ganglion Cells". Journal of Neurophysiology. 85 (3). American Physiological Society: 1340–1345. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

[venom-18] "The venom of the platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus)". Retrieved 13 September. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)

[Electro1-19] Pettigrew, John D. (1999). "Electroreception in Monotremes" (PDF). The Journal of Experimental Biology (202): 1447–1454. Retrieved 19 September. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)

[Manning-20] Manning, A & Dawkins, M.S. (1998). An Introduction to Animal Behaviour Fifth Edition. Cambridge University Press.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[DPIW-21] "Platypus". Department of Primary Industries and Water, Tasmania. 2006-08-31. Retrieved 12 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)

[RKI-22] "Research on Kangaroo Island". University of Adelaide. 2006-07-04. Retrieved 23 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)

[CSIRO-23] Anthony Scott and Tom Grant (1997-11). "Impacts of water management in the Murray-Darling Basin on the platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus) and the water rat (Hydromus chrysogaster)" (PDF). CSIRO Australia. Retrieved 23 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)

[APC2-24] "Platypus in Country Areas". Australian Platypus Conservancy. Retrieved 23 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)

[EPA-25] "Platypus". Environmental Protection Agency/Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service. 2006. Retrieved 24 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)

[EC-26] Erica Cromer (2004-04-14). "Monotreme Reproductive Biology and Behavior". Iowa State University. Retrieved 23 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)

[HCP-27] T.G. Grant and P. D. Temple-Smith (1998-07-29). "Field Biology of the Platypus (Ornithorhynchus Anatinus): Historical and Current Perspectives" (PDF). Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences. 353 (1372). The Royal Society: 1081–1091.

[AJZ4-28] J.L. Gardner and M. Serena (1995). "Spatial-Organization and Movement Patterns of Adult Male Platypus, Ornithorhynchus-Anatinus (Monotremata, Ornithorhynchidae)". Australian Journal of Zoology. 43 (1). CSIRO: 91–103.

[parks-29] "Platypus" (PDF). Parks and Wildlife Service Tasmania. 2003-12. Retrieved 23 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)

[Rowing-30] F.E. Fish, R.V. Baudinette, P.B. Frappell, and M.P. Sarre (1997-07-28). "Energetics of Swimming by the Platypus Ornithorhynchus Anatinus: Metabolic Effort Associated with Rowing" (PDF). The Journal of Experimental Biology. 200 (20). The Company of Biologists Limited: 2647–2652. {{cite journal}}: line feed character in |title= at position 69 (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Bethge-31] Philip Bethge (2002-04). "Energetics and foraging behaviour of the platypus" (PDF). University of Tasmania. Retrieved 23 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)

[32] H. Kruuk (1993). "The Diving Behaviour of the Platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus) in Waters with Different Trophic Status". The Journal of Applied Ecology. 30 (4): 592–598.

[AJZ2-33] T.R. Grant, M. Griffiths and R.M.C. Leckie. "Aspects of Lactation in the Platypus, Ornithorhynchus anatinus (Monotremata), in Waters of Eastern New South Wales". Australian Journal of Zoology. 31 (6). 1983: 881–889.

[ADW-34] Anna Bess Sorin and Phil Myers (2001). "Family Ornithorhynchidae (platypus)". University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Retrieved 24 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help); line feed character in |title= at position 25 (help)

[BSED-35] R. L. Hughes and L. S. Hall (1998-07-29). "Early development and embryology of the platypus" (PDF). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 353 (1372). The Royal Society: 1101–1114.

[RS2-36] Paul R. Manger, Leslie S. Hall, John D. Pettigrew (1998-07-29). "The Development of the External Features of the Platypus (Ornithorhynchus Anatinus)" (PDF). Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences. 353 (1372). The Royal Society: 1115–1125.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[QM-37] "Egg-laying mammals" (PDF). Queensland Museum. 2000-11. Retrieved 24 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)

[Rodent-38] John A. W. Kirsch and Gregory C. Mayer (1998-07-29). "The Platypus is not a Rodent: DNA Hybridization, Amniote Phylogeny and the Palimpsest Theory" (PDF). Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences. 353 (1372): 1221–1237.

[JME-39] M. Messer, A.S. Weiss, D.C. Shaw and M. Westerman (1998-03). "Evolution of the Monotremes: Phylogenetic Relationship to Marsupials and Eutherians, and Estimation of Divergence Dates Based on α-Lactalbumin Amino Acid Sequences". Journal of Mammalian Evolution. 5 (1). Springer Netherlands: 95–105. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[JM-40] O. W. M. Rauhut, T. Martin, E. Ortiz-Jaureguizar and P. Puerta (2001-12-11). "The first Jurassic mammal from South America". Nature. Retrieved 24 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[DI1-41] Jonathan Witt (2004-08-01). "The Gods Must Be Tidy! Is the Cosmos a Work of Poor Engineering or the Gift of an Artistic Designer?". Touchstone Magazine. The Discovery Institute. Retrieved 24 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)

[DI2-42] Josh Gilder (2001-09-24). "PBS's 'Evolution' series is propaganda, not science". World Net Daily. The Discovery Institute. Retrieved 24 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)

[patagonia-43] Tim Folger (1993-01). "A platypus in Patagonia — Ancient life". Discover. Retrieved 17 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)

[discover-44] Jocelyn Selim (2005-04-25). "Sex, Ys, and Platypuses". Discover. Retrieved 13 September. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)

[DPIW2-45] "Platypus Disease Threat". Department of Primary Industries and Water, Tasmania. 2006-09-05. Retrieved 12 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)

[DF-46] "David Fleay's achievements". Queenland Government. 2003-11-23. Retrieved 13 September. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)

[catalyst-47] "Platypus". Catalyst. 2003-11-13. Retrieved 13 September. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)

[48] "A Brief History of the Olympic and Paralympic Mascots". Bejing2008. 2004-08-05. Retrieved 25 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)

[49] "The Home of Hexley the Platypus". Retrieved 25 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)

[50] "An Introduction to Object-Oriented Programming". Retrieved 26 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help); line feed character in |title= at position 19 (help)

[51] "Barry Humphries". Picture Australia. Retrieved 25 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)

[52] "Disco Volante Track Listing". Amazon. Retrieved 25 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)

[53] "Ovide and the Gang". IMDB. Retrieved 25 October. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)

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@@ Line 40: / Line 40: @@
 == Description ==
-The body and the broad, flat tail of the platypus is covered with dense brown [[fur]] that traps a layer of insulating air to keep the animal warm.<ref name="APC" /><ref name="ABRS" /> The platypus uses its tail for storage of fat reserves, an adaptation it shares with the [[Tasmanian Devil]].<ref name="Guiler">{{cite book|author=Guiler, E.R.|date=1983|chapter=Tasmanian Devil|editor=R. Strahan Ed.|title=The Australian Museum Complete Book of Australian Mammals|pages=27-28|publisher=Angus & Robertson|id=ISBN 0-207-14454-0}}</ref> It has webbed feet and a large, rubbery snout – features that appear closer to those of a duck than to those of any known mammal. The webbing is more significant on the front feet and is folded back when walking on land.<ref name="ABRS" /> Unlike a [[bird]]'s [[beak]] (in which both the upper and lower parts of the beak separate to reveal its mouth), the snout of the platypus is a sensory organ with the mouth on the underside. The nostrils are located on the dorsal surface of the snout while the eyes and ears are located in a groove set just back from it; this groove is closed when swimming.<ref name="ABRS" /> Platypuses have been heard to emit a low growl when disturbed and a range of other vocalisations have been reported in captive specimens.<ref name="APC" />
+The body and the broad, flat tail of the platypus is covered with dense brown [[fur]] that traps a layer of insulating air to keep the animal warm.<ref name="APC" /><ref name="ABRS" /> The platypus uses its tail for storage of fat reserves, an adaptation it shares with the [[Tasmanian Devil]].<ref name="Guiler">{{cite book|author=Guiler, E.R.|date=1983|chapter=Tasmanian Devil|editor=R. Strahan Ed.|title=The Australian Museum Complete Book of Australian Mammals|pages=27-28|publisher=Angus & Robertson|id=ISBN 0-207-14454-0}}</ref> It has webbed feet and a large, rubbery snout; these are features that appear closer to those of a duck than to those of any known mammal. The webbing is more significant on the front feet and is folded back when walking on land.<ref name="ABRS" /> Unlike a [[bird]]'s [[beak]] (in which both the upper and lower parts of the beak separate to reveal its mouth), the snout of the platypus is a sensory organ with the mouth on the underside. The nostrils are located on the dorsal surface of the snout while the eyes and ears are located in a groove set just back from it; this groove is closed when swimming.<ref name="ABRS" /> Platypuses have been heard to emit a low growl when disturbed and a range of other vocalisations have been reported in captive specimens.<ref name="APC" />
 [[Image:platypus-sketch.jpg|left|200px|thumb|A colour print of platypuses from 1863]]<!--[[Image:Platypus.jpg|left|thumb|250px|A platypus in [[Sydney Aquarium]] in 2004.]]-->
-Weight varies considerably from 700&nbsp;g (1.54&nbsp;lb) to 2.4&nbsp;kg (5.3&nbsp;lb) with males being larger than females: males average 50&nbsp;cm (20&nbsp;in) total length while females average 43&nbsp;cm (17&nbsp;in).<ref name="ABRS" /> There is substantial variation in average size from one region to another - this pattern does not seem to follow any particular climatic rule and may be due to other environmental factors such as predation and human encroachment.<ref name="Workshop">{{cite web|url=http://www.medicine.utas.edu.au/research/mono/Taspaper.html|title=Current research on the platypus, Ornithorhynchus anatinus in Tasmania: Abstracts from the 1999 ‘Tasmanian Platypus WORKSHOP’|author=Sarah Munks and Stewart Nicol|publisher=University of Tasmania|date=1999-05|accessdate=23 October|accessyear=2006}}</ref>
+Weight varies considerably from 700&nbsp;g (1.54&nbsp;lb) to 2.4&nbsp;kg (5.3&nbsp;lb) with males being larger than females: males average 50&nbsp;cm (20&nbsp;in) total length while females average 43&nbsp;cm (17&nbsp;in).<ref name="ABRS" /> There is substantial variation in average size from one region to another, and this pattern does not seem to follow any particular climatic rule and may be due to other environmental factors such as predation and human encroachment.<ref name="Workshop">{{cite web|url=http://www.medicine.utas.edu.au/research/mono/Taspaper.html|title=Current research on the platypus, Ornithorhynchus anatinus in Tasmania: Abstracts from the 1999 ‘Tasmanian Platypus WORKSHOP’|author=Sarah Munks and Stewart Nicol|publisher=University of Tasmania|date=1999-05|accessdate=23 October|accessyear=2006}}</ref>
 The platypus has an average body temperature of 31&ndash;32&nbsp;°C (88&ndash;90&nbsp;°F) rather than the 38&nbsp;°C (100&nbsp;°F) typical of [[placentalia|placental mammals]].<ref name="DC">{{cite web|url=http://www.bio.davidson.edu/courses/anphys/1999/White/thermal.htm|title=Thermal Biology of the Platypus|publisher=Davidson College|date=1999|accessdate=14 September|accessyear=2006}}</ref> Research suggests this has been a gradual adaptation to harsh environmental conditions on the part of the small number of surviving monotreme species rather than a historical characteristic of monotremes.<ref name="temp">{{cite journal|journal=Australian Journal of Zoology|title=Monotreme Cell-Cycles and the Evolution of Homeothermy|author=J.M. Watson and J.A.M. Graves|volume=36|issue=5|pages=573-584|date=1988|publisher=CSIRO}}</ref><ref name="temp2">{{cite journal|journal=Australian Journal of Zoology|title=Standard Metabolism of Monotremes and the Evolution of Homeothermy|author= T.J. Dawson, T.R. Grant and D. Fanning |volume=27|issue=4|pages=511-515|date=1979|publisher=CSIRO}}</ref>
@@ Line 75: / Line 75: @@
 Metabolic Effort Associated with Rowing|publisher=The Company of Biologists Limited|author=F.E. Fish, R.V. Baudinette, P.B. Frappell, and M.P. Sarre|date=1997-07-28|url=http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/reprint/200/20/2647.pdf}}</ref> The species is [[endothermic]], maintaining its low body temperature, even while foraging for hours in water below 5&nbsp;°C (41&nbsp;°F).<ref name="ABRS" />
-Dives normally last around 30 seconds, but can last longer  although few exceed the estimated aerobic limit of 40 seconds. 10 to 20 seconds are commonly spent in recovery at the surface.<ref name="Bethge">{{cite web|url=http://www.bethge.org/BethgePhD.pdf|title=Energetics and foraging behaviour of the platypus|publisher = University of Tasmania|author=Philip Bethge|date=2002-04|accessdate=23 October|accessyear=2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=The Journal of Applied Ecology|title=The Diving Behaviour of the Platypus (''Ornithorhynchus anatinus'') in Waters with Different Trophic Status|author=H. Kruuk|volume=30|issue=4|date=1993|pages=592-598}}</ref> The platypus is a [[carnivore]] - it feeds on [[annelid]] worms and [[larva|insect larvae]], freshwater [[shrimp]]s, and [[yabbie]]s (freshwater crayfish) that it digs out of the riverbed with its snout or catches while swimming. It utilizes cheek-pouches to carry prey to the surface where they are eaten.<ref name="parks" /> The platypus needs to eat about 20% of its own weight each day. This requires the platypus to spend an average of 12 hours each day looking for food.<ref name="Bethge" /> When not in the water, the platypus retires to a short, straight resting burrow of oval cross-section, nearly always in the riverbank not far above water level, and often [[camouflage|hidden]] under a protective tangle of roots.<ref name="parks" />
+Dives normally last around 30 seconds, but can last longer  although few exceed the estimated aerobic limit of 40 seconds. 10 to 20 seconds are commonly spent in recovery at the surface.<ref name="Bethge">{{cite web|url=http://www.bethge.org/BethgePhD.pdf|title=Energetics and foraging behaviour of the platypus|publisher = University of Tasmania|author=Philip Bethge|date=2002-04|accessdate=23 October|accessyear=2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=The Journal of Applied Ecology|title=The Diving Behaviour of the Platypus (''Ornithorhynchus anatinus'') in Waters with Different Trophic Status|author=H. Kruuk|volume=30|issue=4|date=1993|pages=592-598}}</ref> The platypus is a [[carnivore]]: it feeds on [[annelid]] worms and [[larva|insect larvae]], freshwater [[shrimp]]s, and [[yabbie]]s (freshwater crayfish) that it digs out of the riverbed with its snout or catches while swimming. It utilizes cheek-pouches to carry prey to the surface where they are eaten.<ref name="parks" /> The platypus needs to eat about 20% of its own weight each day. This requires the platypus to spend an average of 12 hours each day looking for food.<ref name="Bethge" /> When not in the water, the platypus retires to a short, straight resting burrow of oval cross-section, nearly always in the riverbank not far above water level, and often [[camouflage|hidden]] under a protective tangle of roots.<ref name="parks" />
 ===Reproduction===
@@ Line 88: / Line 88: @@
 The female platypus has a pair of ovaries but only the left one is functional.<ref name="EC" /> It lays one to three (usually two) small, leathery eggs (similar to those of reptiles), that are about 11&nbsp;mm (7/16&nbsp;in) in diameter and slightly rounder than bird eggs.<ref name="BSED">{{cite journal|journal= Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|title=Early development and embryology of the platypus|author=R. L. Hughes  and L. S. Hall|volume=353|issue=1372|pages=1101-1114|publisher=The Royal Society|date=1998-07-29|url =http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/media/f016900vtmdrxhex8ue3/contributions/0/q/w/m/0qwmu5q0ut5jnp8p.pdf}}</ref> The eggs develop in utero for about 28 days with only about 10 days of external [[incubate|incubation]] (in contrast to a chicken egg which spends about 1 day in tract and 28 days externally).<ref name="EC" /> After laying her eggs, the female curls around them. The incubation period is separated into three parts. In the first, the [[embryo]] has no functional organs and relies on the [[yolk sac]] for sustenance. During the second, the digits develop, and in the last, the [[egg tooth]] appears.<ref name="RS2">{{cite journal|journal=Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences|title =The Development of the External Features of the Platypus (''Ornithorhynchus Anatinus'')|author=Paul R. Manger, Leslie S. Hall, John D. Pettigrew|volume=353|issue=1372|pages=1115-1125|date=1998-07-29|publisher=The Royal Society|url= http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/media/6cc6l5ryyq2rul62eaak/contributions/6/l/v/g/6lvgj7juvffateun.pdf}}</ref>
-The newly hatched young are vulnerable, blind, and hairless, and are fed by the mother's milk.  Although possessing [[mammary gland]]s, the platypus lacks teats - milk is released through pores in the skin. There are grooves on her abdomen that form pools of milk, allowing the young to lap it up.<ref name="APC" /><ref name="EPA" /> After they hatch, the offspring are suckled for three to four months. During incubation and weaning, the mother initially only leaves the burrow for short periods to forage. When doing so, she creates a number of thin soil plugs along the length of burrow possibly to protect the young from predators; pushing past these on her return forces water from her fur and allows the burrow to remain dry.<ref name="QM">{{cite web|url=http://www.qm.qld.gov.au/inquiry/leaflets/leaflet0010.pdf|title=Egg-laying mammals|publisher=Queensland Museum|date=2000-11|accessdate=24 October|accessyear=2006}}</ref> After about five weeks, the mother begins to spend more time away from her young and at around four months the young emerge from the burrow.<ref name="EPA" />
+The newly hatched young are vulnerable, blind, and hairless, and are fed by the mother's milk.  Although possessing [[mammary gland]]s, the platypus lacks teats. Instead, milk is released through pores in the skin. There are grooves on her abdomen that form pools of milk, allowing the young to lap it up.<ref name="APC" /><ref name="EPA" /> After they hatch, the offspring are suckled for three to four months. During incubation and weaning, the mother initially only leaves the burrow for short periods to forage. When doing so, she creates a number of thin soil plugs along the length of burrow possibly to protect the young from predators; pushing past these on her return forces water from her fur and allows the burrow to remain dry.<ref name="QM">{{cite web|url=http://www.qm.qld.gov.au/inquiry/leaflets/leaflet0010.pdf|title=Egg-laying mammals|publisher=Queensland Museum|date=2000-11|accessdate=24 October|accessyear=2006}}</ref> After about five weeks, the mother begins to spend more time away from her young and at around four months the young emerge from the burrow.<ref name="EPA" />
 == In mammalian evolution ==
@@ Line 94: / Line 94: @@
 The platypus and other monotremes were very poorly understood for many years and some of the 19th century myths that grew up around them, for example, that the monotremes were "inferior" or quasi-[[reptile|reptilian]], still endure.<ref name="Rodent">{{cite journal|journal=Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences|title=The Platypus is not a Rodent: DNA Hybridization, Amniote Phylogeny and the Palimpsest Theory|author=John A. W. Kirsch and Gregory C. Mayer|volume=353|issue=1372|pages=1221-1237|date=1998-07-29| url = http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/media/2glktpyxurlpb2xydff7/contributions/h/d/d/4/hdd4bxyt0dxx5ph1.pdf}}</ref> It is now generally accepted that modern monotremes are the survivors of an early branching of the mammal tree; a later branching is thought to have led to the [[marsupial]] and placental groups.<ref name="JME">{{cite journal|journal=Journal of Mammalian Evolution|publisher=Springer Netherlands|title=Evolution of the Monotremes: Phylogenetic Relationship to Marsupials and Eutherians, and Estimation of Divergence Dates Based on α-Lactalbumin Amino Acid Sequences|author=M. Messer, A.S. Weiss, D.C. Shaw and M. Westerman|volume=5|issue=1|pages=95-105|date=1998-03}}</ref><ref name="Rodent" /> Although in 1947, W.K. Gregory had theorized that placental mammals and marsupials may have diverged earlier with a subsequent branching dividing the monotremes and marsupials, later research and fossil discoveries have suggested this is incorrect.<ref name="Rodent" /><ref name="JM">{{cite web|url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v416/n6877/extref/416165a-s1.doc|title=The first Jurassic mammal from South America|author=O. W. M. Rauhut, T. Martin, E. Ortiz-Jaureguizar and P. Puerta|publisher=Nature|accessdate=24 October|accessyear=2006|date=2001-12-11}}</ref> Due to the unique combination of its features the platypus is also a topic in arguments over [[Darwinian evolution]] and [[intelligent design]], with both sides claiming that its existence gives weight to their theory.<ref name="DI1">{{cite web|url=http://www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/index.php?command=view&id=2136|title=The Gods Must Be Tidy! Is the Cosmos a Work of Poor Engineering or the Gift of an Artistic Designer?|author=Jonathan Witt|work=Touchstone Magazine|publisher=The Discovery Institute|date=2004-08-01|accessdate=24 October|accessyear=2006}}</ref><ref name="DI2">{{cite web|url=http://www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/index.php?command=view&id=1054|title=PBS’s ‘Evolution’ series is propaganda, not science|author=Josh Gilder|work=World Net Daily|publisher=The Discovery Institute|date=2001-09-24|accessdate=24 October|accessyear=2006}}</ref>
-The oldest discovered fossil of the modern platypus dates back to about 100,000 years ago - the [[Quaternary]] period. The extinct monotremes (''[[Teinolophos]]'' and ''[[Steropodon]]'') were closely related to the modern platypus.<ref name="JM" /> The fossilised ''Steropodon'' was discovered in [[New South Wales]] and is composed of an opalised lower jawbone with three molar teeth (whereas the adult contemporary platypus is toothless). The molar teeth were initially thought to be [[tribosphenic molar|tribosphenic]] which would have supported a variation of Gregory's theory, but later research has suggested while they have three cusps they evolved under a separate process.<ref name="MS" /> The fossil is thought to be about 110 million years old, which means that the platypus-like animal was alive during the [[Cretaceous]] period, making it the oldest mammal fossil found in Australia. ''[[Monotrematum sudamericanum]]'', another fossil relative of the platypus has been found in [[Argentina]], indicating that monotremes were present in the supercontinent of [[Gondwana]] when the continents of [[South America]] and Australia were joined via [[Antarctica]] (up to about 167 million years ago).<ref name="MS" /><ref name="patagonia">{{cite web|url=http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1511/is_n1_v14/ai_13670058|title=A platypus in Patagonia - Ancient life|author=Tim Folger|publisher=Discover|date=1993-01|accessdate=17 October|accessyear=2006}}</ref>
+The oldest discovered fossil of the modern platypus dates back to about 100,000 years ago, during the [[Quaternary]] period. The extinct monotremes (''[[Teinolophos]]'' and ''[[Steropodon]]'') were closely related to the modern platypus.<ref name="JM" /> The fossilised ''Steropodon'' was discovered in [[New South Wales]] and is composed of an opalised lower jawbone with three molar teeth (whereas the adult contemporary platypus is toothless). The molar teeth were initially thought to be [[tribosphenic molar|tribosphenic]] which would have supported a variation of Gregory's theory, but later research has suggested while they have three cusps they evolved under a separate process.<ref name="MS" /> The fossil is thought to be about 110 million years old, which means that the platypus-like animal was alive during the [[Cretaceous]] period, making it the oldest mammal fossil found in Australia. ''[[Monotrematum sudamericanum]]'', another fossil relative of the platypus has been found in [[Argentina]], indicating that monotremes were present in the supercontinent of [[Gondwana]] when the continents of [[South America]] and Australia were joined via [[Antarctica]] (up to about 167 million years ago).<ref name="MS" /><ref name="patagonia">{{cite web|url=http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1511/is_n1_v14/ai_13670058|title=A platypus in Patagonia — Ancient life|author=Tim Folger|publisher=Discover|date=1993-01|accessdate=17 October|accessyear=2006}}</ref>
 Because of the early divergence from the [[Theria|therian mammals]] and the low numbers of extant monotreme species, it is a frequent subject of research in evolutionary biology. In 2004, [[research]]ers at the [[Australian National University]] discovered the platypus has ten [[sex chromosome]]s, compared to two (XY) found in most other mammals (for instance, a male platypus is always XYXYXYXYXY). Furthermore, one of the platypus’s Y chromosomes shares genes with the ZZ/ZW sex [[chromosomes]] found in [[bird]]s. This news further pronounced the individuality of the platypus in the [[animal]] kingdom.<ref name="discover">{{cite web|url=http://www.discover.com/web-exclusives-archive/sex-ys-platypuses0425/|title=Sex, Ys, and Platypuses|publisher=Discover|author=Jocelyn Selim|date=2005-04-25|accessdate=13 September|accessyear=2006}}</ref>
@@ Line 102: / Line 102: @@
 [[Image:platypus-plate.jpg|right|200px|thumb|A depiction of a platypus from a book for children published in Germany in 1798]]
-A fungal infection poses a possible threat to platypuses in Tasmania - the fungus, ''Mucor amphiborum'' causes ulceration on the body that can lead to problems with thermoregulation and death from secondary infections. The same fungus so far causes no problems to the platypus on the Australian mainland. The Tasmania Parks and Wildlife Service and Biodiversity Conservation Branch
+A fungal infection poses a possible threat to platypuses in Tasmania. The fungus, ''Mucor amphiborum'' causes ulceration on the body that can lead to problems with thermoregulation and death from secondary infections. The same fungus so far causes no problems to the platypus on the Australian mainland. The Tasmania Parks and Wildlife Service and Biodiversity Conservation Branch
-Department of Primary Industries and Water are collaborating to monitor the effects of the infection on the platypus population in Tasmania.<ref name="DPIW2">{{cite web|url=http://www.dpiw.tas.gov.au/inter.nsf/WebPages/LJEM-6SC9AW?open|title=Platypus Disease Threat|publisher = Department of Primary Industries and Water, Tasmania|date=2006-09-05|accessdate=12 October|accessyear=2006}}</ref> Platypuses in Tasmania tend to be larger than those found in the mainland of Australia possibly because of the lack of introduced predators - the failure to establish the [[red fox]] in particular is theorized to be a contributing factor to both the greater average size and abundance of the platypus in the state.<ref name="Workshop" />
+Department of Primary Industries and Water are collaborating to monitor the effects of the infection on the platypus population in Tasmania.<ref name="DPIW2">{{cite web|url=http://www.dpiw.tas.gov.au/inter.nsf/WebPages/LJEM-6SC9AW?open|title=Platypus Disease Threat|publisher = Department of Primary Industries and Water, Tasmania|date=2006-09-05|accessdate=12 October|accessyear=2006}}</ref> Platypuses in Tasmania tend to be larger than those found in the mainland of Australia, possibly because of the lack of introduced predators. The failure to establish the [[red fox]] in particular is theorized to be a contributing factor to both the greater average size and abundance of the platypus in the state.<ref name="Workshop" />
 Much of the world was introduced to the platypus in 1939 when [[National Geographic Society|National Geographic magazine]] published an article on the platypus and the efforts to study and raise it in captivity. This is a difficult task, and only a few young have been successfully raised since &mdash; notably at [[Healesville Sanctuary]] in [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]]. The leading figure in these efforts was [[David Fleay]] who established a platypussary &mdash; a simulated stream in a tank &mdash; at the Healesville Sanctuary and had a successful breeding in 1943. In 1972, he found a dead baby of about 50 days old, which had presumably been born in captivity, at his [[David Fleay Wildlife Park|wildlife park]] at [[Burleigh Heads, Queensland|Burleigh Heads]] on the [[Gold Coast, Queensland|Gold Coast]], Queensland.<ref name="DF">{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.qld.gov.au/nature_conservation/wildlife/david_fleay_wildlife_park/50_years_wild/david_fleays_achievements/|title= David Fleay's achievements|publisher=Queenland Government|date=2003-11-23|accessdate=13 September|accessyear=2006}}</ref> Healesville repeated its success in 1998 and again in 2000 with a similar stream tank. [[Taronga Zoo]] in [[Sydney]] bred twins in 2003, and had another birth in 2006.<ref name="catalyst">{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/catalyst/stories/s988946.htm|title=Platypus|publisher=Catalyst|date=2003-11-13|accessdate=13 September|accessyear=2006}}</ref>
@@ Line 110: / Line 110: @@
 [[Image:Oz20cent.jpg|thumb|220px|left|The Australian 20 cent coin features a platypus]]
-The platypus is sometimes jokingly referred to as "proof that [[God]] has a sense of [[humor]]", and its unusual appearance has led to its appearance in many media, particularly in its native Australia. The platypus has been used several times as a mascot: "Syd" the platypus was one of the three mascots chosen for the [[2000 Summer Olympics|Sydney 2000 Olympics]] along with an echidna and a [[Kookaburra]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.beijing2008.com/31/87/article211928731.shtml|title=A Brief History of the Olympic and Paralympic Mascots|publisher=Bejing2008|date=2004-08-05|accessdate=25 October|accessyear=2006}}</ref> while [[Hexley]] the platypus is the mascot for [[Apple Computer]]'s [[BSD]]-based [[Darwin (operating system)|Darwin]] operating system, Mac OS X.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hexley.com/|title=The Home of Hexley the Platypus|accessdate=25 October|accessyear=2006}}</ref> A platypus named Phyl appears in several of the books written by [[Timothy Budd]] - it is used to illustrate two important principles of [[object-oriented programming]]: [[inheritance]] and [[Method overriding (programming)|overriding]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.engr.oregonstate.edu/~budd/Books/oopintro/|title=An Introduction to
+The platypus is sometimes jokingly referred to as "proof that [[God]] has a sense of [[humor]]", and its unusual appearance has led to its appearance in many media, particularly in its native Australia. The platypus has been used several times as a mascot: "Syd" the platypus was one of the three mascots chosen for the [[2000 Summer Olympics|Sydney 2000 Olympics]] along with an echidna and a [[Kookaburra]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.beijing2008.com/31/87/article211928731.shtml|title=A Brief History of the Olympic and Paralympic Mascots|publisher=Bejing2008|date=2004-08-05|accessdate=25 October|accessyear=2006}}</ref> while [[Hexley]] the platypus is the mascot for [[Apple Computer]]'s [[BSD]]-based [[Darwin (operating system)|Darwin]] operating system, Mac OS X.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hexley.com/|title=The Home of Hexley the Platypus|accessdate=25 October|accessyear=2006}}</ref> A platypus named Phyl appears in several of the books written by [[Timothy Budd]]. Phyl is used to illustrate two important principles of [[object-oriented programming]]: [[inheritance]] and [[Method overriding (programming)|overriding]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.engr.oregonstate.edu/~budd/Books/oopintro/|title=An Introduction to
 Object-Oriented Programming|accessdate=26 October|accessyear=2006}}</ref> The satirist [[Barry Humphries]] exhibited the box of a mock pesticide product called "Platytox" during his early surrealist period.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.cs-pa-HTTP%253A%252F%252FWWW.PORTRAIT.GOV.AU%252FARCHIVE%252FSEARCH%252FSEARCH_SHOWDETAILS.CFM%253FWORK_ID%253D58|title=Barry Humphries|publisher=Picture Australia|accessdate=25 October|accessyear=2006}}</ref> Experimental rock band [[Mr. Bungle]] has a track named after the creature on their second major album, ''Disco Volante''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amazon.co.uk/Disco-Volante-Mr-Bungle/dp/B000024KEB|title=Disco Volante Track Listing|publisher=Amazon|accessdate=25 October|accessyear=2006}}</ref>