Jump to content

Goryeo coinage: Difference between revisions

Edit links
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
reorganizing for future edits
→‎Geonwon Jungbo controversy: Added more sources, still some sources missing which I will look for later.
Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit Advanced mobile edit
Line 75: Line 75:
During the reign of [[Chungnyeol of Goryeo]] the government had permitted the circulation of rough or broken pieces of silver.<ref name="AncientHistoryEncyclopedia"/> No specimens of the ''dae ŭnbyŏng'' are known to have survived to the modern era.<ref name="AncientHistoryEncyclopedia"/><ref name="BoK" /> The ''dae ŭnbyŏng'' was replaced with the smaller ''so ŭnbyŏng'' in 1331; the ''so ŭnbyŏng'' was discontinued in 1408 during the Joseon dynasty.<ref name="BoK" />
During the reign of [[Chungnyeol of Goryeo]] the government had permitted the circulation of rough or broken pieces of silver.<ref name="AncientHistoryEncyclopedia"/> No specimens of the ''dae ŭnbyŏng'' are known to have survived to the modern era.<ref name="AncientHistoryEncyclopedia"/><ref name="BoK" /> The ''dae ŭnbyŏng'' was replaced with the smaller ''so ŭnbyŏng'' in 1331; the ''so ŭnbyŏng'' was discontinued in 1408 during the Joseon dynasty.<ref name="BoK" />


== ''Geonwon Jungbo'' controversy ==
== ''Geonwon Jungbo'' controversy ==
{{More citations needed section|date=October 2019}}
The first cash coins that were allegedly minted in Korea occurred under the reign of [[Seongjong of Goryeo|King Seongjong]] in the year Seongjong 15 (996 AD). It bore the inscription "Geonwon Jungbo" (乾元重寶, 건원중보) on its obverse and "Dongguk" (東國, 동국), which could be translated as "the country of the East", on its reverse. This series of cash coins bore the same inscription as the Tang dynasty Qianyuan Zhongbao (乾元重寶) cash coins, but the text "Dongguk" was added to its reverse to indicate that the coin was from a country east of China. The ''Geonwon Jungbo'' were manufactured in both [[bronze]] and iron.


The first cash coins that were allegedly minted in Korea occurred under the reign of [[Seongjong of Goryeo|King Seongjong]] in the year Seongjong 15 (996 AD). It bore the inscription "Geonwon Jungbo" (乾元重寶, 건원중보) on its obverse and "Dongguk" (東國, 동국), which could be translated as "the country of the East", on its reverse.<ref name="CSSNQianyuanZhongbaoDongGuo">{{cite web|url= http://www.cssn.cn/sjs/sjs_hqzs/201709/t20170919_3644954.shtml|title= 乾元重宝背东国.|date=19 September 2017|accessdate=4 October 2019|author= 王祖远|publisher= China Social Sciences Network - China Press of Social Sciences (中国社会科学网-中国社会科学报 ).|language=zh-cn}}</ref><ref name="ZhiHuGoryeoCoinage">{{cite web|url= https://zhuanlan.zhihu.com/p/42359498|title= 海东自有轻重宜：高丽王朝货币概述 - 1 年前 · 来自专栏 史图馆.|date=18 August 2018|accessdate=4 October 2019|author= Song Pingxin (松平信)|publisher= zhuanlan.zhihu.com|language=zh-cn}}</ref> This series of cash coins bore the same inscription as the Tang dynasty Qianyuan Zhongbao (乾元重寶) cash coins, but the text "Dongguk" was added to its reverse to indicate that the coin was from a country east of China.<ref name="CSSNQianyuanZhongbaoDongGuo"/> The ''Geonwon Jungbo'' were manufactured in both [[bronze]] and iron.<ref name="BaiduNumismatics2011">{{cite web|url= https://wk.baidu.com/view/254c43c5f705cc17552709d2?pcf=2|title= 2011年中国钱币学研究综述_图文_百度文库.|date=22 January 2014|accessdate=4 October 2019|work= A Summary of the Research on Chinese Numismatic Studies in 2011 (2011年中国钱币学研究综述)|publisher= [[Baidu]]|language=zh-cn}}</ref><ref name="BrewninateGoryeo">{{cite web|url= https://brewminate.com/the-goryeo-kingdom-of-medieval-korea/|title= Goryeo (Koryo) ruled ancient Korea from 918 CE to 1392 CE.|date=13 April 2019|accessdate=4 October 2019|author= Mark Cartwright (Historian)|publisher= Brewminate (A bold blend of News & Ideas).|language=en}}</ref>
⚫
The attribution of the ''Geonwon Jungbo'' to Seongjong is controversial. This is because no ancient Korean historical references mention this series of cash coins and the ''Geonwon Jungbo'' did not appear in any coin catalogues until the year 1938 when a Japanese coin catalogue named ''East Asian Money'' (東亞錢志) attributed it as being an early Korean issue. After its initial attribution notable Chinese numismatist [[Ding Fubao]] quoted this book in one of his works in 1940. It is speculated by some Chinese numismatists that the attribution of this series of cash coins to Goryeo may be because of cash coins with similar inscriptions being listed in the "Qian Zhi", a Chinese coin catalogue published in the year 1149 (Shaoxing 19) during the [[Southern Song dynasty]] as this catalogue listed not only Chinese cash coins but also Japanese, Vietnamese, Korean, and [[Southeast Asia]]n coins.


⚫
The attribution of the ''Geonwon Jungbo'' to Seongjong is controversial. This is because no ancient Korean historical references mention this series of cash coins and the ''Geonwon Jungbo'' did not appear in any coin catalogues until the year 1938 when a Japanese coin catalogue named ''East Asian Money'' (東亞錢志) volume 15 attributed it as being an early Korean issue.<ref name="ZhiHuGoryeoCoinage"/><ref name="CSSNQianyuanZhongbaoDongGuo"/> After its initial attribution notable Chinese numismatist [[Ding Fubao]] quoted this book in one of his works in 1940.<ref>Ding Fubao. ''Lidai guqian tushuo'' (Catalog of ancient coins), [[Taiwan under Japanese rule|Taiwan]], 1940, in [[Mandarin Chinese]], reprinted in 1995 with Ma Ding-xiang comments.</ref> It is speculated by some Chinese numismatists that the attribution of this series of cash coins to Goryeo may be because of cash coins with similar inscriptions being listed in the "Qian Zhi",<ref name="ZhiHuGoryeoCoinage"/> a Chinese coin catalogue published in the year 1149 (Shaoxing 19) during the [[Southern Song dynasty]] as this catalogue listed not only Chinese cash coins but also Japanese, Vietnamese, Korean, and [[Southeast Asia]]n coins.<ref name="SongCoinBookCNKI">{{cite web|url= http://mall.cnki.net/magazine/Article/ZGQB200203013.htm|title= 《泉志》的《永乐大典》本校文及整理札记(上).|date=|accessdate=4 October 2019|work= mall.cnki.net/magazine|language=zh-cn}}</ref><ref name="ZhongGuoGuoQing">{{cite web|url= http://www.zhongguoguoqing.cn/info/1046/2068.htm|title= 《泉志》，南宋洪遵(1120—1174年)著。志说国情.|date=10 January 2018|accessdate=4 October 2019|work= www.zhongguoguoqing.cn|language=zh-cn}}</ref>
⚫
Because of where these cash coins are usually found in the modern era and due to the lack of historical records, it is sometimes attributed to the ancient Korean kingdom of [[Balhae]]. But no historical records exist from Balhae in regard to its coinage so the exact origins of the ''Geonwon Jungbo'' remain a mystery. Because of these findings many mainstream Chinese numismatists do not attribute the ''Geonwon Jungbo'' to Goryeo. Other arguments set forth is that "Dongguk" is an abbreviation for "Haidong Shengguo", one of the names of Balhae, the fact that Balhae was a major exporter of copper to the Tang dynasty and had a very prosperous economy and a developed culture, this meant that Balhae might have issued its own coinage as it had an extremely well developed copper melting industry, furthermore Balhae used the same calendar as the Tang dynasty so when the Tang dynasty entered the Qianyuan era Balhae entered the Geonwon era.


⚫
Because of where these cash coins are usually found in the modern era and due to the lack of historical records, it is sometimes attributed to the ancient Korean kingdom of [[Balhae]].<ref name="ZhiHuGoryeoCoinage"/> But no historical records exist from Balhae in regard to its coinage<ref name="AlexanderAlexeyvichKimBohai">{{cite web|url= http://oriens-extremus.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/OE47-Review3.pdf|title= Archeological Studies of Bohai in Russia.|date=November 2011|accessdate=4 October 2019|author= Alexander Alexeyvich Kim (Ussuriysk)|publisher= Oriens-Extremus.org|language=en}}</ref><ref name="EastMoneyBalhae">{{cite web|url= https://emwap.eastmoney.com/news/info/detail/20141007430855771 |title= 渤海国有钱么.|date=7 October 2014|accessdate=4 October 2019|author= 广州日报|publisher= emwap.eastmoney.com|language=zh-cn}}</ref> so the exact origins of the ''Geonwon Jungbo'' remain a mystery.<ref name="ZhiHuGoryeoCoinage"/> Because of these findings many mainstream Chinese numismatists do not attribute the ''Geonwon Jungbo'' to Goryeo. Other arguments set forth is that "Dongguk" is an abbreviation for "Haidong Shengguo" (海東盛國),<ref name="CSSNQianyuanZhongbaoDongGuo"/> one of the names of Balhae, the fact that Balhae was a major exporter of copper to the Tang dynasty and had a very prosperous economy and a developed culture, this meant that Balhae might have issued its own coinage as it had an extremely well developed copper melting industry,<ref name="CSSNQianyuanZhongbaoDongGuo"/> furthermore Balhae used the same calendar as the Tang dynasty so when the Tang dynasty entered the Qianyuan era Balhae entered the Geonwon era.{{cn}}
⚫
During its heyday Balhae was complete imitation of the Tang dynasty with its [[Three Departments and Six Ministries]] system,<ref name="Dillon2016">{{cite book|author=Michael Dillon|title=Encyclopedia of Chinese History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kp6iDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT95|date=1 December 2016|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-317-81715-4|page=95}}</ref> Balhae was strongly influenced by the Tang on political, economic, cultural, and military levels and the country was commonly referred to as "Dongguk" because of its geographical location. Meanwhile, it is very unlikely that Goryeo would’ve adopted the Tang dynasty Qianyuan Zhongbao inscription as by its time this series of cash coins came to be associated with the inflation and political instability of the late Tang period.


⚫
During its heyday Balhae was complete imitation of the Tang dynasty with its [[Three Departments and Six Ministries]] system,<ref name="Dillon2016">{{cite book|author=Michael Dillon|title=Encyclopedia of Chinese History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kp6iDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT95|date=1 December 2016|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-317-81715-4|page=95}}</ref> Balhae was strongly influenced by the Tang on political, economic, cultural, and military levels and the country was commonly referred to as "Dongguk" because of its geographical location.<ref name="ZhiHuGoryeoCoinage"/><ref>m.wzrbw.cmstop.cn - [http://m.wzrbw.cmstop.cn/p/17443.html 品藏|乾元重宝背东国]
⚫
Another hypothesis claims that the Geonwon Jungbo were either a commemorative issue or a military issue akin to the much later [[Qianlong Tongbao]] cash coins issued during the [[Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa]] campaign which had the characters "安南" ([[Vietnam|Annam]]) inscribed on its reverse.
2015-09-11 12:52. Retrieved: 04 October 2019. (in [[Mandarin Chinese]])</ref> Meanwhile, it is very unlikely that Goryeo would’ve adopted the Tang dynasty ''Qianyuan Zhongbao'' inscription as by its time this series of cash coins came to be associated with the inflation and political instability of the late Tang period.{{cn}}


⚫
Another hypothesis claims that the ''Geonwon Jungbo'' were either a commemorative issue or a military issue akin to the much later [[Qianlong Tongbao]] cash coins issued during the [[Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa]] campaign which had the characters "安南" ([[Vietnam|Annam]]) inscribed on its reverse.<ref name="BalhaeAnnamBest2B">{{cite web|url= https://m.bestb2b.com/business_153892024.htm|title= 乾元重宝图片及价格#乾元重宝市场价值多少钱？.|date=13 August 2019|accessdate=4 October 2019|work= m.bestb2b.com|language=zh-cn}}</ref>
⚫
In the modern era these cash coins are mostly unearthed in the Chinese province of [[Liaoning]] and [[North Korea]]. Some of them being unearthed in the city of [[Kaiyuan, Liaoning]]. The iron cash coins are more commonly found than the bronze ones. Currently only 10 pieces of the ''Geonwon Jungbo'' are known to exist making it an extremely valued object among [[East Asia]]n coin collectors.

⚫
In the modern era these cash coins are mostly unearthed in the Chinese province of [[Liaoning]] and [[North Korea]]. Some of them being unearthed in the city of [[Kaiyuan, Liaoning]].<ref name="BaiduNumismatics2011"/> The iron cash coins are more commonly found than the bronze ones. Currently only 10 pieces of the ''Geonwon Jungbo'' are known to exist making it an extremely valued object among [[East Asia]]n coin collectors.<ref name="SOUC201205021">{{cite web|url= http://mall.cnki.net/magazine/article/SOUC201205021.htm|title= “乾元重宝·东国”钱是高丽钱吗?.|date=2 May 2012|accessdate=4 October 2019|work= mall.cnki.net/magazine/|language=zh-cn}}</ref>


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"

Revision as of 20:29, 4 October 2019

Two Dongguk Tongbo (東國通寶) cash coins.

Goryeo coinage (Hanja: 高麗-貨幣; Hangul: 고려의 화폐) refers to the different types of coinages which were attempted to become the main currency of Goryeo. During most of its history the Kingdom of Goryeo did not have a money-based economy but most goods were traded using barter. However, the government had attempted several times to introduce various types of coinages include coins based on Chinese cash coins, silver vases known as ŭnbyŏng (銀瓶, 은병).

There is some evidence that suggests that Chinese currency circulated in Korea at the time.

These efforts to introduce coinage to Goryeo were all ultimately unsuccessful and the Korean economy would remain to be based on barter until several centuries into the Joseon period in the 17th century.

History

Ancient coinages

While in ancient Korea various items like clam shells, iron, and precious metals were all traded as a medium of exchange, but the primary forms of currency during this era used in bartering were grain and cloth.[1] During the pre-monetary times anything related to food and clothing was used as a medium of exchange as well as a method to measure the value of products.[1] The types of grains most commonly used for bartering were rice, barley, beans, and millet. Of these commodities millet white rice was valued a lot more than regular rice. The most common forms of cloth as currency in ancient Korea were hemp, ramie, and silk.[1] Other goods were calculated as having a certain value that was in relation to fundamental commodities such as grain, rice, and cloth. As a result of the ancient barter-based economy some modern elderly South Koreans still use the phrase "Go to the market and sell some rice" which evokes the idea of trading rice for other products.[1] It would not be until the 17th century that coinage fully replaced the barter system throughout the entire Korean peninsula.

Hemp was first the most common form of cloth currency but later cotton cloth (or pohwa) would become the dominant form of cloth money.[2] Since the Three Kingdoms period, silk was considered to be one of the most highly valued medium of exchange.[1]

As in modern times Xin dynasty era hwacheon (貨泉, 화천) cash have been unearthed in tombs in modern Korea there is minor evidence that these coins might've been used for the international trade of the time.[3][4] In 2018 Wu Zhu (五銖, 오수) cash coins, known as oshujeon in Korea, were unearthed in the North Gyeongsang province further confirming an ancient trade relation with China.[5]

The first known metallic coinage known to have circulated in ancient Korea was Chinese knife money,[2] this type of Chinese coin circulated in the Kingdom of Yan during the Warring States period,[6] and was brought to the Korean peninsula by Chinese settlers and in modern times specimens of knife money have been excavated in the provinces of Pyeongan and Jeolla.[2] During the Chinese Han dynasty Wu Zhu cash coins which were known as oshujeon (五銖錢, 오수전) in Korean were brought to the Korean peninsula following the Han conquest of Gojoseon in 108 BC. The oshujeon would continue to circulate in the later kingdoms of Goguryeo and Silla of the Korea Three Kingdoms period up to the 10th century CE.[2] Today oshujeon are most commonly found in the tombs of the former Lelang Commandery.[2]

Early period

The first definitive record of currency use in Korea appears in the Goryeo period (918–1392).[7][failed verification] Early in that period, even though some imported Chinese currency from the Tang and Song dynasties were in circulation, commodity currency such as grain and linen continued in general circulation. In the 10th and 11th centuries, iron and bronze coins were issued, but saw limited circulation among the common people.[8]

Around this time period, the Goryeo government issued a new monetary policy regarding the minting and distribution of cash coins. This decree was implemented to both strengthen royal authority and to regulate the national finances of Korea.[1]

Middle period

King Sukjong created a new monetary system based on round copper-alloy coins with square holes as well as the ŭnbyŏng (銀瓶, 은병) shaped like the Korean peninsula. The coins were produced bearing the inscriptions 東國 (동국/Dong guk or "Eastern Country"), 海東 (해동/hae dong or "East of the Sea"), and 三韓 (삼한/Samhan).[9]

"There is nothing more important than coinage, which may benefit our country and enrich the people … It is only now that we have issued decrees about the minting of metal coinage."

- Goryeosa (History of the Goryeo Dynasty), article on money from the Sikhwaji (Treatise on Food and Money), 1102 (Year 7 of King Sukjong of Goryeo).

An extremely rare variant of the Samhan Tongbo (삼한통보, 三韓通寶) cash coin exists that bears the character 叁 written in "official script" instead of 三, of which only 2 have currently been found.[9]

A new government department, the Directorate of the Mint was created, this government agency in charge of regulating the newly established currency system, and the Dongguk Tongbo (東國通寶) was the first of the these new Korean cash coins to be minted.[1]

In order to strengthen the monetary policy of Goryeo, government officials were encouraged to receive their salaries in cash coins and it was hoped that if they would spend the new currency at local taverns that this would encourage their circulation to become widespread throughout Korea.[1] However, the new cash coin's value would prove to be rather unreliable in the marketplace and it was considered to be impractical for purchasing and trading goods. Because of this perception the new cash coins of Goryeo did not find wide usage.[1]

There is evidence to suggest that the Chinese used to extensively export Chinese cash coins to Korea for local circulation.[2] The Sinan shipwreck, which was a ship from Ningbo that sank off the Korean coast in the year 1323,[10] carried some 8,000 strings of cash coins,[11] which weighed about 26,775 kg.[2]

Late period

List of Goryeo cash coins by inscription

Inscription Hangul McCune–Reischauer Revised Romanisation Scripts Date of casting Diameter
(in millimeter)		 Weight
(in grams)		 Image
東國通寶 동국통보 Dong kuk T'ong Bo Dong Guk Tong Bo Seal script (篆書), Clerical script (隸書), Regular script (楷書), and Running script (行書) 998–1097 AD 23 ~ 25 2.4 ~ 3
東國重寶 동국중보 Dong Kuk Chung Bo Dong Guk Jung Bo Regular script (楷書) 998–1097 AD 24 ~ 25 2.8 ~ 3.6[a]
三韓通寶 삼한통보 Sam Han T'ong Bo Sam Han Tong Bo Seal script (篆 書), Clerical script (隸書) and Running script (行書) 1097–1105 AD 23 ~ 25 2.6 ~ 3.4[b]
叁韓通寶 삼한통보 Sam Han T'ong Bo Sam Han Tong Bo "Official Script" 1097–1105 AD
三韓重寶 삼한중보 Sam Han Chung Bo Sam Han Jung Bo Regular script (楷書) 1097–1105 AD 25 4
海東通寶 해동통보 Hae Dong T'ong Bo Hae Dong Tong Bo Seal script (篆書), Clerical script (隸書), Regular script (楷書), and Running script (行書) 1097–1105 AD 25 2.9
海東重寶 해동중보 Hae Dong Chung Bo Hae Dong Jung Bo Regular script (楷書) 1097–1105 AD 25 3.1 ~ 4
海東元寶[c] 해동원보 Hae Dong Wŏn Bo Hae Dong Won Bo Regular script (楷書) 1097–1105 AD

Ŭnbyŏng

The ŭnbyŏng (銀瓶, 은병), or hwalgu, were silver vases that were shaped like the Korean peninsula and were widely used during the Goryeo period, they primarily circulated among the aristocracy.[8] The ŭnbyŏng was in circulation for around 300 years and, according to the Bank of Korea, occupies an important place in the history of Korean currency.[12] There were two types of ŭnbyŏng: the large dae ŭnbyŏng (대은병; 大銀甁), which was first issued in 1101, and the small so ŭnbyŏng (소은병; 小銀甁), which was first issued in 1331.[12] These ŭnbyŏng produced from the year 1101 and were engraved with an official state seal to mark them as a legitimate currency which was valid throughout Goryeo. The ŭnbyŏng weighed around one Kŭn (斤, 근) which is roughly equal to 600 grams, this made them very useful for paying for large transactions.[2] Historians suggest that the ŭnbyŏng primarily used by the aristocratic classes and that were also often involved in the bribing of government officials.[2] In the year 1282 the government enacted a law that pegged the value of one ŭnbyŏng at between 2,700 and 3,400 litres of rice.[2] But regardless of the fact that this currency was highly impractical for paying for low value items, the ŭnbyŏng would continue to be used during the next two centuries.[2]

During the reign of Chungnyeol of Goryeo the government had permitted the circulation of rough or broken pieces of silver.[2] No specimens of the dae ŭnbyŏng are known to have survived to the modern era.[2][12] The dae ŭnbyŏng was replaced with the smaller so ŭnbyŏng in 1331; the so ŭnbyŏng was discontinued in 1408 during the Joseon dynasty.[12]

Geonwon Jungbo controversy

The first cash coins that were allegedly minted in Korea occurred under the reign of King Seongjong in the year Seongjong 15 (996 AD). It bore the inscription "Geonwon Jungbo" (乾元重寶, 건원중보) on its obverse and "Dongguk" (東國, 동국), which could be translated as "the country of the East", on its reverse.[13][14] This series of cash coins bore the same inscription as the Tang dynasty Qianyuan Zhongbao (乾元重寶) cash coins, but the text "Dongguk" was added to its reverse to indicate that the coin was from a country east of China.[13] The Geonwon Jungbo were manufactured in both bronze and iron.[15][16]

The attribution of the Geonwon Jungbo to Seongjong is controversial. This is because no ancient Korean historical references mention this series of cash coins and the Geonwon Jungbo did not appear in any coin catalogues until the year 1938 when a Japanese coin catalogue named East Asian Money (東亞錢志) volume 15 attributed it as being an early Korean issue.[14][13] After its initial attribution notable Chinese numismatist Ding Fubao quoted this book in one of his works in 1940.[17] It is speculated by some Chinese numismatists that the attribution of this series of cash coins to Goryeo may be because of cash coins with similar inscriptions being listed in the "Qian Zhi",[14] a Chinese coin catalogue published in the year 1149 (Shaoxing 19) during the Southern Song dynasty as this catalogue listed not only Chinese cash coins but also Japanese, Vietnamese, Korean, and Southeast Asian coins.[18][19]

Because of where these cash coins are usually found in the modern era and due to the lack of historical records, it is sometimes attributed to the ancient Korean kingdom of Balhae.[14] But no historical records exist from Balhae in regard to its coinage[20][21] so the exact origins of the Geonwon Jungbo remain a mystery.[14] Because of these findings many mainstream Chinese numismatists do not attribute the Geonwon Jungbo to Goryeo. Other arguments set forth is that "Dongguk" is an abbreviation for "Haidong Shengguo" (海東盛國),[13] one of the names of Balhae, the fact that Balhae was a major exporter of copper to the Tang dynasty and had a very prosperous economy and a developed culture, this meant that Balhae might have issued its own coinage as it had an extremely well developed copper melting industry,[13] furthermore Balhae used the same calendar as the Tang dynasty so when the Tang dynasty entered the Qianyuan era Balhae entered the Geonwon era.[citation needed]

During its heyday Balhae was complete imitation of the Tang dynasty with its Three Departments and Six Ministries system,[22] Balhae was strongly influenced by the Tang on political, economic, cultural, and military levels and the country was commonly referred to as "Dongguk" because of its geographical location.[14][23] Meanwhile, it is very unlikely that Goryeo would’ve adopted the Tang dynasty Qianyuan Zhongbao inscription as by its time this series of cash coins came to be associated with the inflation and political instability of the late Tang period.[citation needed]

Another hypothesis claims that the Geonwon Jungbo were either a commemorative issue or a military issue akin to the much later Qianlong Tongbao cash coins issued during the Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa campaign which had the characters "安南" (Annam) inscribed on its reverse.[24]

In the modern era these cash coins are mostly unearthed in the Chinese province of Liaoning and North Korea. Some of them being unearthed in the city of Kaiyuan, Liaoning.[15] The iron cash coins are more commonly found than the bronze ones. Currently only 10 pieces of the Geonwon Jungbo are known to exist making it an extremely valued object among East Asian coin collectors.[25]

Inscription Hangul McCune–Reischauer Revised Romanisation Image
乾元重寶
東國		 건원중보
동국		 Kŏn Wŏn Jung Bo
Dong Guk		 Geon Won Jung Bo
Dong Guk

Notes

  1. ^ Specimens weighing as much 4.2 grams have been recorded.
  2. ^ Specimens weighing as little 2.1 grams have been recorded.
  3. ^ These cash coins are extremely rare and the only recent specimens of the Haedong Wonbo (海東元寶) that have been excavated were found in an area near Kaesong, North Korea.

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i Not listed (2019). "Korean Currency". National Institute of Korean History. Retrieved 29 September 2019.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Mark Cartwright (25 September 2016). "Ancient Korean Coinage". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 1 October 2019. {{cite web}}: |author= has generic name (help); External link in |author= (help)
  3. ^ Lee Hana (21 January 2016). "2,000-year-old Chinese coins unearthed in Gwangju". Korea.net. Retrieved 30 September 2019.
  4. ^ "Xin Dynasty Coins Found in Korean Tomb". Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture). 23 January 2016. Retrieved 5 September 2017.
  5. ^ Not listed (6 June 2018). "Archeologists discover ancient Chinese Wuzhu coins in Korean tomb in North Gyeongsang Province, S.Korea". Global Times. Retrieved 1 October 2019.
  6. ^ ZME Science You should know about Chinese knife money. Last updated on March 28th, 2011 at 1:18 pm by Mihai Andrei. Retrieved: 12 July 2017.
  7. ^ A New History of Korea by Ki-baik Lee (Harvard University Press, 1984; p. 122).
  8. ^ a b "Monetary History of Korea". Armstrong Economics (Researching the past to predict the future). 10 April 2012. Retrieved 8 June 2017.
  9. ^ a b "Korean Coins – 韓國錢幣 - History of Korean Coinage". Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture). 16 November 2016. Retrieved 5 June 2017.
  10. ^ Richard von Glahn, "The Ningbo-Hakata Merchant Network and the Reorientation of East Asian Maritime Trade, 1150-1350," Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 74:2 (2014), 272, 279.
  11. ^ Amino Yoshihiko, Alan Christy (trans.), Rethinking Japanese History, Center for Japanese Studies, University of Michigan (2012), 147.
  12. ^ a b c d 오경섭. 독특한 형태를 지닌 은병(銀甁)화폐. Bank of Korea (in Korean). Retrieved 3 October 2019.
  13. ^ a b c d e 王祖远 (19 September 2017). "乾元重宝背东国" (in Chinese (China)). China Social Sciences Network - China Press of Social Sciences (中国社会科学网-中国社会科学报 ). Retrieved 4 October 2019.
  14. ^ a b c d e f Song Pingxin (松平信) (18 August 2018). "海东自有轻重宜：高丽王朝货币概述 - 1 年前 · 来自专栏 史图馆" (in Chinese (China)). zhuanlan.zhihu.com. Retrieved 4 October 2019.
  15. ^ a b "2011年中国钱币学研究综述_图文_百度文库". A Summary of the Research on Chinese Numismatic Studies in 2011 (2011年中国钱币学研究综述) (in Chinese (China)). Baidu. 22 January 2014. Retrieved 4 October 2019.
  16. ^ Mark Cartwright (Historian) (13 April 2019). "Goryeo (Koryo) ruled ancient Korea from 918 CE to 1392 CE". Brewminate (A bold blend of News & Ideas). Retrieved 4 October 2019.
  17. ^ Ding Fubao. Lidai guqian tushuo (Catalog of ancient coins), Taiwan, 1940, in Mandarin Chinese, reprinted in 1995 with Ma Ding-xiang comments.
  18. ^ "《泉志》的《永乐大典》本校文及整理札记(上)". mall.cnki.net/magazine (in Chinese (China)). Retrieved 4 October 2019.
  19. ^ "《泉志》，南宋洪遵(1120—1174年)著。志说国情". www.zhongguoguoqing.cn (in Chinese (China)). 10 January 2018. Retrieved 4 October 2019.
  20. ^ Alexander Alexeyvich Kim (Ussuriysk) (November 2011). "Archeological Studies of Bohai in Russia" (PDF). Oriens-Extremus.org. Retrieved 4 October 2019.
  21. ^ 广州日报 (7 October 2014). "渤海国有钱么" (in Chinese (China)). emwap.eastmoney.com. Retrieved 4 October 2019.
  22. ^ Michael Dillon (1 December 2016). Encyclopedia of Chinese History. Taylor & Francis. p. 95. ISBN 978-1-317-81715-4.
  23. ^ m.wzrbw.cmstop.cn - 品藏|乾元重宝背东国 2015-09-11 12:52. Retrieved: 04 October 2019. (in Mandarin Chinese)
  24. ^ "乾元重宝图片及价格#乾元重宝市场价值多少钱？". m.bestb2b.com (in Chinese (China)). 13 August 2019. Retrieved 4 October 2019.
  25. ^ ""乾元重宝·东国"钱是高丽钱吗?". mall.cnki.net/magazine/ (in Chinese (China)). 2 May 2012. Retrieved 4 October 2019.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Coins of Goryeo.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Goryeo_coinage&oldid=919639388"