Smokybrown cockroach: Difference between revisions
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The '''smokybrown cockroach''' (''Periplaneta fuliginosa'') is a large species of [[cockroach]], winged, and growing to a length of |
The '''smokybrown cockroach''' (''Periplaneta fuliginosa'') is a large species of [[cockroach]], winged, and growing to a length of {{convert|32|-|35|mm|in}}.<ref name=":16">Appel, A. G., & Smith II, L. M. (2002). Biology and management of the smokybrown cockroach. ''Annual Review of Entomology'', 47, 33–55</ref> |
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==Characteristics== |
== Characteristics == |
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[[File: |
[[File:Smokybrown cockroach on back.JPG|left|thumb|The underside of ''P. fuliginosa'']] |
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{{Speciesbox |
{{Speciesbox |
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Although closely related to the [[American cockroach]] (''Periplaneta americana''), the smokybrown cockroach is readily distinguishable from it by its uniformly light to dark brown–[[Mahogany (color)|mahogany]] coloration.<ref name=":16" /> Furthermore, unlike the ''P. americana'', which possesses a light-rimmed pattern on its thorax, the smokybrown cockroach's thorax is dark and shiny.<ref name=":16" /> |
Although closely related to the [[American cockroach]] (''Periplaneta americana''), the smokybrown cockroach is readily distinguishable from it by its uniformly light to dark brown–[[Mahogany (color)|mahogany]] coloration.<ref name=":16" /> Furthermore, unlike the ''P. americana'', which possesses a light-rimmed pattern on its thorax, the smokybrown cockroach's thorax is dark and shiny.<ref name=":16" /> |
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==Diet== |
== Diet == |
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The smokybrown cockroach is a [[detritivore]] and can feed off a wide array of organic (including decaying) matter.<ref name=":16" /> Like most cockroaches, it is a [[scavenger]], whereby it feeds on many different types of foods including dry [[Earthworm|earthworms]], pet food,pet waste such as feces and urine, paper, and many types of ripe fruits.<ref name=":16" /> |
The smokybrown cockroach is a [[detritivore]] and can feed off a wide array of organic (including decaying) matter.<ref name=":16" /> Like most cockroaches, it is a [[scavenger]], whereby it feeds on many different types of foods including dry [[Earthworm|earthworms]], pet food,pet waste such as feces and urine, paper, and many types of ripe fruits.<ref name=":16" /> |
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The smokybrown cockroach is very common in [[Japan]], as well as the [[southern United States]] and tropical climates; notably, it can be found in [[Florida]], Eastern [[North Carolina]], [[Louisiana]], [[Mississippi]], [[Texas]], and other [[Gulf Coast of the United States|Gulf coastal states]], and along the southern [[Mississippi River]].<ref name=":16" /> The cockroach can also be found in [[Australia]], such as in warmer cities like [[Sydney]] and [[Brisbane]]. Most notably in South America, these cockroaches are seen in Argentina to Paraguay geographical range.<ref name=":16" /> The cockroach has also been recently reported in Asia, Europe, Australia, and Northern America.<ref name=":16" /> |
The smokybrown cockroach is very common in [[Japan]], as well as the [[southern United States]] and tropical climates; notably, it can be found in [[Florida]], Eastern [[North Carolina]], [[Louisiana]], [[Mississippi]], [[Texas]], and other [[Gulf Coast of the United States|Gulf coastal states]], and along the southern [[Mississippi River]].<ref name=":16" /> The cockroach can also be found in [[Australia]], such as in warmer cities like [[Sydney]] and [[Brisbane]]. Most notably in South America, these cockroaches are seen in Argentina to Paraguay geographical range.<ref name=":16" /> The cockroach has also been recently reported in Asia, Europe, Australia, and Northern America.<ref name=":16" /> |
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The smoky brown cockroach prefers warmer [[Climate sensitivity|climates]] and is not cold-tolerant.<ref name=":74">Fleet, R. R., Piper, G. L., & Frankie, G. W. (1978). Studies on the population ecology of the smokybrown cockroach, ''Periplaneta fuliginosa'', in a Texas outdoor urban environment. ''Environmental Entomology'', 7, |
The smoky brown cockroach prefers warmer [[Climate sensitivity|climates]] and is not cold-tolerant.<ref name=":74">Fleet, R. R., Piper, G. L., & Frankie, G. W. (1978). Studies on the population ecology of the smokybrown cockroach, ''Periplaneta fuliginosa'', in a Texas outdoor urban environment. ''Environmental Entomology'', 7, 807–814.</ref> It may, however, be able to survive colder climates by going [https://cockroachfacts.com/smoky-brown-cockroach/ indoors].<ref name=":16" /> It often lives around the perimeter of buildings especially places where these insects can feed and confine themselves.<ref name=":16" /> |
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== Behavior and Adaptations == |
== Behavior and Adaptations == |
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The smokybrown cockroach may come indoors during daylight hours to look for food and even to live; generally, however, in warm weather, it will move outdoors.<ref>Grimaldi D., Engel M.S. (2005.) ''Evolution of the Insects'', Cambridge University Press, New York City, NY, USA.</ref><ref name=":74" /> They tend to lose moisture twice as fast as their relative, ''Periplaneta Americana'', therefore requiring environmental conditions with constant moisture to avoid drying out.<ref>Smith, L. M., Appel, A. G., Mack, T. P., & Keever, G. J. (1999). Preferred temperature and relative humidity of males of two sympatric ''Periplaneta'' cockroaches (Blattodea: Blattidae) denied access to water. ''Environmental Entomology'', 28, |
The smokybrown cockroach may come indoors during daylight hours to look for food and even to live; generally, however, in warm weather, it will move outdoors.<ref>Grimaldi D., Engel M.S. (2005.) ''Evolution of the Insects'', Cambridge University Press, New York City, NY, USA.</ref><ref name=":74" /> They tend to lose moisture twice as fast as their relative, ''Periplaneta Americana'', therefore requiring environmental conditions with constant moisture to avoid drying out.<ref>Smith, L. M., Appel, A. G., Mack, T. P., & Keever, G. J. (1999). Preferred temperature and relative humidity of males of two sympatric ''Periplaneta'' cockroaches (Blattodea: Blattidae) denied access to water. ''Environmental Entomology'', 28, 935–942.</ref> Their activity patterns are mostly restricted to evening hours when humidity is highest.<ref name=":74" /> The movement to and from shelters is greatest when temperatures exceed {{convert|20|°C|°F}} and often becomes less when temperatures are lower than {{convert|20|°C|°F}}.<ref name=":74" /> Since adults are less susceptible than nymphs to the effects of higher temperatures, adults are more often found away from the perimeters of the house.<ref name=":74" /> Often during reproductive periods, females ready for egg dispersal infest homes to protect their offspring and find a convenient place to oviposit.<ref name=":74" /> This adaptation is advantageous to these cockroaches, as egg production often becomes limited when temperatures reach {{convert|15|°C|°F}}.<ref name=":74" /> |
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== Reproduction == |
== Reproduction == |
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=== Oviposition === |
=== Oviposition === |
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''P. fuliginosa'' can reproduce through [[Sexual reproduction in insects|sexual reproduction]] and in some cases through [[parthenogenesis]], which is a form of [[asexual reproduction]].<ref name=":62">Xian, X. (1998). Effects of mating on oviposition, and possibility of parthenogenesis of three domestic cockroach species, the American cockroach ''Periplaneta americana''; the smoky brown cockroach, ''Periplaneta fulginosa''; and the German cockroach, ''Blattella germanica''. ''Medical Entomology and Zoology'', 49, |
''P. fuliginosa'' can reproduce through [[Sexual reproduction in insects|sexual reproduction]] and in some cases through [[parthenogenesis]], which is a form of [[asexual reproduction]].<ref name=":62">Xian, X. (1998). Effects of mating on oviposition, and possibility of parthenogenesis of three domestic cockroach species, the American cockroach ''Periplaneta americana''; the smoky brown cockroach, ''Periplaneta fulginosa''; and the German cockroach, ''Blattella germanica''. ''Medical Entomology and Zoology'', 49, 27–32.</ref> In cases where females do not have access to mates, females reproduce by parthenogenesis, however, this form of reproduction is not as commonly seen as sexual reproduction.<ref name=":62" /> Females can [[Ovipositor|oviposit]] an average of 10 or more [[Ootheca|oothecae]] in favorable environments, but this is highly dependent on the cockroaches' body fat, thereby as her body mass decreases fewer ootheca are oviposited in a season.<ref>Smith, L. M., Appel. A. G., West, M. S., Mack, T. P., & Keever, G. J. (1996). Morphology and body composition predict ovipositional history of female smokybrown cockroaches (Dictyoptera: Blattidae) in the laboratory. ''Journal of Medical Entomology'', 33, 926–932.</ref> The oothecae, dark brown color, commonly ranges from {{convert|11|-|14|mm|in}} in length.<ref name=":16" /> On average female cockroaches without mates live longer, than females with a mate.<ref name=":62" /> In a study done, it was found that on average adult females lived 117–174 days, whereas females without a mate lived to 131–236 days after reaching adulthood.<ref name=":62" /> The higher energy costs associated with [[oogenesis]] and the prevalence of oviposition point to a shorter lifespan.<ref name=":62" /> Furthermore, an extended oviposition period occurs, as a result, fewer [[Egg|eggs]] are formed.<ref name=":62" /> Sexual reproduction also leads to lower instances of oothecae defects without the presence of eggs compared to reproducing asexually.<ref name=":62" /> |
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=== Mating Behaviour === |
=== Mating Behaviour === |
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Females release volatile [[Sex pheromone|sex pheromones]] stimulating the mating behavior of ''P. fuliginosa'' males, which receive the chemical signals through sensory receptors located on their [[Antenna (biology)|antennae]].<ref name=":32">Takahashi, S., Watanabe, K., Saito, S., & Nomura, Y. (1995). Isolation and biological activity of the sex pheromone of the smoky brown cockroach, ''Periplaneta fuliginosa'' Serville (Dictyoptera: Blattidae). Applied Entomology and Zoology, 30, |
Females release volatile [[Sex pheromone|sex pheromones]] stimulating the mating behavior of ''P. fuliginosa'' males, which receive the chemical signals through sensory receptors located on their [[Antenna (biology)|antennae]].<ref name=":32">Takahashi, S., Watanabe, K., Saito, S., & Nomura, Y. (1995). Isolation and biological activity of the sex pheromone of the smoky brown cockroach, ''Periplaneta fuliginosa'' Serville (Dictyoptera: Blattidae). Applied Entomology and Zoology, 30, 357–360.</ref> These pheromones are made up of synthetic [[Periplanone B|Periplanone-D]], which is a major sex excitatory component of the pheromone chemical composition.<ref name=":32" /> In addition, the males often participate in perching, whereby their body conformation includes a pointing downward of the head, forelegs extended, as their antennae become aligned 45° from their vertical position.<ref name=":22">Appel, A. G., & Rust. M. K. (1986). Time-activity budgets and spatial distribution patterns of the smokybrown cockroach, ''Periplaneta fuliginosa'' (Dictyoptera: Blattidae). ''Annals of the Entomological Society of America'', 79, 104–108.</ref> Whereby, in female mate calling the cockroaches' body is up high, the [[Dorsal (anatomy)|dorsal]] end of the [[Abdomen (insect anatomy)|abdomen]] bend towards the ground, and wings are held at a 45° angle.<ref name=":22" /> These male cockroaches allocate significantly more time and energy to mating behaviors than females as the production of female pheromones is costly.<ref name=":22" /> Moreover, spending 20% of their time perching, whereby in retrospect females only spend 8% of their time mate calling.<ref name=":22" /> |
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== Morphology == |
== Morphology == |
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=== Cuticle Physiology === |
=== Cuticle Physiology === |
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Temperature and levels of humidity are factors that greatly influence the smoky brown cockroaches' [[Exoskeleton|cuticular]] water loss, therefore these insects are attracted to highly humid areas to reduce the permeability of their cuticle.<ref name=":02">Appel, A. G., Reierson, D. A., & Rust, M. K. (1986). Cuticular water loss in the smokybrown cockroach, ''Periplaneta fuliginosa''. |
Temperature and levels of humidity are factors that greatly influence the smoky brown cockroaches' [[Exoskeleton|cuticular]] water loss, therefore these insects are attracted to highly humid areas to reduce the permeability of their cuticle.<ref name=":02">Appel, A. G., Reierson, D. A., & Rust, M. K. (1986). Cuticular water loss in the smokybrown cockroach, ''Periplaneta fuliginosa''. ''Journal of Insect Physiology'', 32, 623–628.</ref><ref name=":92">Appel, A. G., & Rust, M. K. (1985). Water distribution and loss in response to acclimation at constant humidity in the smokybrown cockroach, ''Periplaneta fuliginosa'' (Serville). ''Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology'', 80, 377–380.</ref> The amount of [[lipid]] composition of the cockroach also directly correlates to lower body transpiration, in addition, but provides these species with a more water barrier easing the permeability of the cuticle.<ref name=":02" /> Therefore, as the water levels drop from sun exposure, the circulation of materials in the blood is also slowly diminishing.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":92" /> Over time even when restricted to certain habitats due to the physiology of their cuticle, they are able to acclimatize through [[homeostasis]] seen by decreased salivary gland production.<ref name=":92" /> ''P. fuliginosa'', are able to upkeep homeostasis in fluctuating moisture regions by changing their drinking habits, and the water flow rate of fecal matter, as well as cuticle [[Transpiration cooling|transpiration]].<ref name=":92" /> The cuticle is made up of many layers where much secretion is stored between the various plates.<ref name=":42">Ichinose, T., & Kishimoto, M. (1982). The comparative morphology of the caudal secretory hypodermis of three species of cockroaches, ''Periplaneta fuliginosa'' SERV., ''P. japonica'' KARNY, and ''P. America L.'' (Orthoptera: Blattidae), with regard to their development and rearing densities. ''Applied Entomology and Zoology'', 18, 191–199.</ref> These thick layers have various glandular cells, along with pores that connect through the cuticle to secrete the sticky protein substance.<ref name=":42" /> The secretions of the hypodermal layer play a role in the nymph male defenses towards adult cockroaches.<ref name=":42" /> |
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== Ecological Impact == |
== Ecological Impact == |
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=== Pest Status === |
=== Pest Status === |
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''P. fuliginosa'' are considered [[Pest (organism)|pests]] in many geographical areas around the world, including the Southern United States and Japan, as they are very effective at invading urban [https://extensionentomology.tamu.edu/publications/cockroach-biology-and-management/ homes], restaurants, hospitals, and many other crowded places.<ref name=":74" /> <ref name=":16" /> With their rapid invasion into homes, they are known as sanitary pests and have adapted to toxic bait traps being ineffective at eradicating these species.<ref name=":52">Ozawa, S., Vicente, C., Sato, K., Yoshiga, T., Kanzaki, N., & Hasegawa, K. (2014). First report of the nematode ''Leidynema appendiculata'' from ''Periplaneta fuliginosa''. ''Acta Parasitogica'', 59, |
''P. fuliginosa'' are considered [[Pest (organism)|pests]] in many geographical areas around the world, including the Southern United States and Japan, as they are very effective at invading urban [https://extensionentomology.tamu.edu/publications/cockroach-biology-and-management/ homes], restaurants, hospitals, and many other crowded places.<ref name=":74" /> <ref name=":16" /> With their rapid invasion into homes, they are known as sanitary pests and have adapted to toxic bait traps being ineffective at eradicating these species.<ref name=":52">Ozawa, S., Vicente, C., Sato, K., Yoshiga, T., Kanzaki, N., & Hasegawa, K. (2014). First report of the nematode ''Leidynema appendiculata'' from ''Periplaneta fuliginosa''. ''Acta Parasitogica'', 59, 219–228.</ref> |
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=== Impact to Humans === |
=== Impact to Humans === |
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These species can be detrimental to human health, thereby due to their proximity of inhabitance to humans they are a [[Disease vector|vector]] for [[Disease|diseases]] from the [[parasitism]] of [[Nematode|nematodes]].<ref name=":52" /> They are harmful due to humans through their ability to feed on [[Feces|fecal matter]], which transmits [[Human parasite|parasites]] and many diseases.<ref name=":16" /> The parasitic nematode, ''Leidynema appendiculata'', is known to parasitize the smoky brown cockroach, in which they invade and live in the cockroach's gut.<ref name=":52" /> The eggs of the nematode are passed through the cockroach's feces and spread to other hosts by cockroaches eating the excrement.<ref name=":52" /> The invasion of homes by these cockroaches greatly increases the prevalence of asthma, pathogen exposure, and allergens [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780323375795000040 seen].<ref name=":82">Jiang, H., Zhou, L., Zhang, J. M., Dong, H. F., Hu, Y. Y., & Jiang, M. S. (2008). Potential of ''Periplaneta fuliginosa'' densovirus as a biocontrol agent for smoky-brown cockroach, ''P. fuliginosa''. ''Biological Control'', 46, 94–100.</ref> Exposure to the cockroach's feces, the shed outer layer of the exoskeleton, and other body parts mainly cause the transfer of parasites and allergens.<ref name=":16" /> In addition, human exposure to these parasitic nematodes can cause conditions such as [[colitis]], and infections of the female [[reproductive tract]].<ref>Ozawa, S., & Hasegawa, K. (2018). Broad infectivity of ''Leidynema appendiculatum'' (Nematoda: Oxyurida: Thelastomatidae) parasite of the smokybrown cockroach ''Periplaneta fuliginosa'' (Blattodea: Blattidae). ''Ecology and Evolution'', 8, |
These species can be detrimental to human health, thereby due to their proximity of inhabitance to humans they are a [[Disease vector|vector]] for [[Disease|diseases]] from the [[parasitism]] of [[Nematode|nematodes]].<ref name=":52" /> They are harmful due to humans through their ability to feed on [[Feces|fecal matter]], which transmits [[Human parasite|parasites]] and many diseases.<ref name=":16" /> The parasitic nematode, ''Leidynema appendiculata'', is known to parasitize the smoky brown cockroach, in which they invade and live in the cockroach's gut.<ref name=":52" /> The eggs of the nematode are passed through the cockroach's feces and spread to other hosts by cockroaches eating the excrement.<ref name=":52" /> The invasion of homes by these cockroaches greatly increases the prevalence of asthma, pathogen exposure, and allergens [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780323375795000040 seen].<ref name=":82">Jiang, H., Zhou, L., Zhang, J. M., Dong, H. F., Hu, Y. Y., & Jiang, M. S. (2008). Potential of ''Periplaneta fuliginosa'' densovirus as a biocontrol agent for smoky-brown cockroach, ''P. fuliginosa''. ''Biological Control'', 46, 94–100.</ref> Exposure to the cockroach's feces, the shed outer layer of the exoskeleton, and other body parts mainly cause the transfer of parasites and allergens.<ref name=":16" /> In addition, human exposure to these parasitic nematodes can cause conditions such as [[colitis]], and infections of the female [[reproductive tract]].<ref>Ozawa, S., & Hasegawa, K. (2018). Broad infectivity of ''Leidynema appendiculatum'' (Nematoda: Oxyurida: Thelastomatidae) parasite of the smokybrown cockroach ''Periplaneta fuliginosa'' (Blattodea: Blattidae). ''Ecology and Evolution'', 8, 3908–3918.</ref> |
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=== Management Practices === |
=== Management Practices === |
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One of the control measures to avoid these inhabitants is the use of [[Insecticide|insecticides]], thereby spraying around the exterior of the house with a |
One of the control measures to avoid these inhabitants is the use of [[Insecticide|insecticides]], thereby spraying around the exterior of the house with a {{convert|3|m|ft|adj=on}}-wide barrier.<ref name=":16" /> In addition, it has also been suggested to use these insecticides every month in the cracks, around windows, and any other accessible entry points for these, cockroaches to enter.<ref name=":16" /> New insights have been set in using [[virus]] technology to control the smoky brown cockroach.<ref name=":82" /> The use of the [[densovirus]] is an interesting technology to use as many methods are ill-equipped to minimize the impacts of the smoky brown cockroach as they can change their sensory behavior to insecticides over time.<ref name=":52" /><ref name=":82" /> In a study done, when ''P. fuliginosa'' are exposed to the artificially extracted densovirus from a diseased cockroach, high [[Mortality rate|mortality]] occurred with exposure to low [[Dose–response relationship|doses]].<ref name=":82" /> The use of a [[Biological pest control|biocontrol agent]] rather than insecticides is more advantageous as it is safer for humans and other organisms indirectly affected, additionally, targets ''P. fuliginosa'' directly.<ref name=":82" /> |
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==Additional images== |
== Additional images == |
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<gallery> |
<gallery> |
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File:Periplaneta fuliginosa young nymphs.jpg|Young instar nymphs |
File:Periplaneta fuliginosa young nymphs.jpg|Young instar nymphs |
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</gallery> |
</gallery> |
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==References== |
== References == |
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<references/> |
<references/> |
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{{Wikispecies|Periplaneta fuliginosa}} |
{{Wikispecies|Periplaneta fuliginosa}} |
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{{Commons category|Periplaneta fuliginosa}} |
{{Commons category|Periplaneta fuliginosa}} |
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==External links== |
== External links == |
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*[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/9061685 Black and white photographs] of top view of ''P. fuliginosa'' male and female specimens, from ''Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections''. |
*[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/9061685 Black and white photographs] of top view of ''P. fuliginosa'' male and female specimens, from ''Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections''. |
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* [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/5350315 Drawings] of body parts of male ''P. fuliginosa''; plate VII, figures |
* [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/5350315 Drawings] of body parts of male ''P. fuliginosa''; plate VII, figures 20–24 show detail of the pronotum, end of abdomen with cerci, supra-anal plate, subgenital plate, and genital process. From a 1917 article<ref>{{cite journal| work=Memoirs of the American Entomological Society | publisher=American Entomological Society | year=1917 | issue= 2 | first=Morgan | last=Hebard |authorlink=Morgan Hebard | title=The Blattidae of North America north of the Mexican boundary | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/5350195#page/145/mode/1up }} (The article comprises the whole issue.)</ref> by [[Morgan Hebard]], with a key to the figures on page 281. |
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*[https://cockroachfacts.com/smoky-brown-cockroach/ Smoky Brown Cockroach – Identification, Control and Prevention Tips] |
*[https://cockroachfacts.com/smoky-brown-cockroach/ Smoky Brown Cockroach – Identification, Control and Prevention Tips] |
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*[https://villpace.com/does-bleach-kill-roaches/ Does Bleach Kill Roaches] |
*[https://villpace.com/does-bleach-kill-roaches/ Does Bleach Kill Roaches] |
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*[https://extensionentomology.tamu.edu/publications/cockroach-biology-and-management/ Cockroach Biology and Management] |
*[https://extensionentomology.tamu.edu/publications/cockroach-biology-and-management/ Cockroach Biology and Management] |
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*[https://www.solutionsstores.com/smokybrown-cockroach-control Smoky Brown Cockroach Control: How To Get Rid of Smoky Brown Cockroaches] |
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*[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780323375795000040 Chapter 4 - Indoor and Outdoor Allergens and Pollutants] |
*[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780323375795000040 Chapter 4 - Indoor and Outdoor Allergens and Pollutants] |
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*[https://bugguide.net/index.php?q=search&keys=smoky+brown+cockroach&search=Search Bug Guide] |
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{{Taxonbar|from=Q4667372}} |
{{Taxonbar|from=Q4667372}} |
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Revision as of 19:11, 24 October 2022
 | This article needs additional citations for verification. (December 2009) |
The smokybrown cockroach (Periplaneta fuliginosa) is a large species of cockroach, winged, and growing to a length of 32–35 millimetres (1.3–1.4 in).[1]
Characteristics
| Smokybrown cockroach | |
|---|---|
| |
| Periplaneta fuliginosa laying an egg case | |
Scientific classification 
| |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Blattodea |
| Family: | Blattidae |
| Genus: | Periplaneta |
| Species: | P. fuliginosa
|
| Binomial name | |
| Periplaneta fuliginosa (Serville, 1839)
| |
| Synonyms | |
| |
Although closely related to the American cockroach (Periplaneta americana), the smokybrown cockroach is readily distinguishable from it by its uniformly light to dark brown–mahogany coloration.[1] Furthermore, unlike the P. americana, which possesses a light-rimmed pattern on its thorax, the smokybrown cockroach's thorax is dark and shiny.[1]
Diet
The smokybrown cockroach is a detritivore and can feed off a wide array of organic (including decaying) matter.[1] Like most cockroaches, it is a scavenger, whereby it feeds on many different types of foods including dry earthworms, pet food,pet waste such as feces and urine, paper, and many types of ripe fruits.[1]
Habitat and Distribution
The smokybrown cockroach is very common in Japan, as well as the southern United States and tropical climates; notably, it can be found in Florida, Eastern North Carolina, Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas, and other Gulf coastal states, and along the southern Mississippi River.[1] The cockroach can also be found in Australia, such as in warmer cities like Sydney and Brisbane. Most notably in South America, these cockroaches are seen in Argentina to Paraguay geographical range.[1] The cockroach has also been recently reported in Asia, Europe, Australia, and Northern America.[1]
The smoky brown cockroach prefers warmer climates and is not cold-tolerant.[2] It may, however, be able to survive colder climates by going indoors.[1] It often lives around the perimeter of buildings especially places where these insects can feed and confine themselves.[1]
Behavior and Adaptations
The smokybrown cockroach may come indoors during daylight hours to look for food and even to live; generally, however, in warm weather, it will move outdoors.[3][2] They tend to lose moisture twice as fast as their relative, Periplaneta Americana, therefore requiring environmental conditions with constant moisture to avoid drying out.[4] Their activity patterns are mostly restricted to evening hours when humidity is highest.[2] The movement to and from shelters is greatest when temperatures exceed 20 °C (68 °F) and often becomes less when temperatures are lower than 20 °C (68 °F).[2] Since adults are less susceptible than nymphs to the effects of higher temperatures, adults are more often found away from the perimeters of the house.[2] Often during reproductive periods, females ready for egg dispersal infest homes to protect their offspring and find a convenient place to oviposit.[2] This adaptation is advantageous to these cockroaches, as egg production often becomes limited when temperatures reach 15 °C (59 °F).[2]
Reproduction
Oviposition
P. fuliginosa can reproduce through sexual reproduction and in some cases through parthenogenesis, which is a form of asexual reproduction.[5] In cases where females do not have access to mates, females reproduce by parthenogenesis, however, this form of reproduction is not as commonly seen as sexual reproduction.[5] Females can oviposit an average of 10 or more oothecae in favorable environments, but this is highly dependent on the cockroaches' body fat, thereby as her body mass decreases fewer ootheca are oviposited in a season.[6] The oothecae, dark brown color, commonly ranges from 11–14 millimetres (0.43–0.55 in) in length.[1] On average female cockroaches without mates live longer, than females with a mate.[5] In a study done, it was found that on average adult females lived 117–174 days, whereas females without a mate lived to 131–236 days after reaching adulthood.[5] The higher energy costs associated with oogenesis and the prevalence of oviposition point to a shorter lifespan.[5] Furthermore, an extended oviposition period occurs, as a result, fewer eggs are formed.[5] Sexual reproduction also leads to lower instances of oothecae defects without the presence of eggs compared to reproducing asexually.[5]
Mating Behaviour
Females release volatile sex pheromones stimulating the mating behavior of P. fuliginosa males, which receive the chemical signals through sensory receptors located on their antennae.[7] These pheromones are made up of synthetic Periplanone-D, which is a major sex excitatory component of the pheromone chemical composition.[7] In addition, the males often participate in perching, whereby their body conformation includes a pointing downward of the head, forelegs extended, as their antennae become aligned 45° from their vertical position.[8] Whereby, in female mate calling the cockroaches' body is up high, the dorsal end of the abdomen bend towards the ground, and wings are held at a 45° angle.[8] These male cockroaches allocate significantly more time and energy to mating behaviors than females as the production of female pheromones is costly.[8] Moreover, spending 20% of their time perching, whereby in retrospect females only spend 8% of their time mate calling.[8]
Morphology
Cuticle Physiology
Temperature and levels of humidity are factors that greatly influence the smoky brown cockroaches' cuticular water loss, therefore these insects are attracted to highly humid areas to reduce the permeability of their cuticle.[9][10] The amount of lipid composition of the cockroach also directly correlates to lower body transpiration, in addition, but provides these species with a more water barrier easing the permeability of the cuticle.[9] Therefore, as the water levels drop from sun exposure, the circulation of materials in the blood is also slowly diminishing.[9][10] Over time even when restricted to certain habitats due to the physiology of their cuticle, they are able to acclimatize through homeostasis seen by decreased salivary gland production.[10] P. fuliginosa, are able to upkeep homeostasis in fluctuating moisture regions by changing their drinking habits, and the water flow rate of fecal matter, as well as cuticle transpiration.[10] The cuticle is made up of many layers where much secretion is stored between the various plates.[11] These thick layers have various glandular cells, along with pores that connect through the cuticle to secrete the sticky protein substance.[11] The secretions of the hypodermal layer play a role in the nymph male defenses towards adult cockroaches.[11]
Ecological Impact
Pest Status
P. fuliginosa are considered pests in many geographical areas around the world, including the Southern United States and Japan, as they are very effective at invading urban homes, restaurants, hospitals, and many other crowded places.[2] [1] With their rapid invasion into homes, they are known as sanitary pests and have adapted to toxic bait traps being ineffective at eradicating these species.[12]
Impact to Humans
These species can be detrimental to human health, thereby due to their proximity of inhabitance to humans they are a vector for diseases from the parasitism of nematodes.[12] They are harmful due to humans through their ability to feed on fecal matter, which transmits parasites and many diseases.[1] The parasitic nematode, Leidynema appendiculata, is known to parasitize the smoky brown cockroach, in which they invade and live in the cockroach's gut.[12] The eggs of the nematode are passed through the cockroach's feces and spread to other hosts by cockroaches eating the excrement.[12] The invasion of homes by these cockroaches greatly increases the prevalence of asthma, pathogen exposure, and allergens seen.[13] Exposure to the cockroach's feces, the shed outer layer of the exoskeleton, and other body parts mainly cause the transfer of parasites and allergens.[1] In addition, human exposure to these parasitic nematodes can cause conditions such as colitis, and infections of the female reproductive tract.[14]
Management Practices
One of the control measures to avoid these inhabitants is the use of insecticides, thereby spraying around the exterior of the house with a 3-metre (9.8 ft)-wide barrier.[1] In addition, it has also been suggested to use these insecticides every month in the cracks, around windows, and any other accessible entry points for these, cockroaches to enter.[1] New insights have been set in using virus technology to control the smoky brown cockroach.[13] The use of the densovirus is an interesting technology to use as many methods are ill-equipped to minimize the impacts of the smoky brown cockroach as they can change their sensory behavior to insecticides over time.[12][13] In a study done, when P. fuliginosa are exposed to the artificially extracted densovirus from a diseased cockroach, high mortality occurred with exposure to low doses.[13] The use of a biocontrol agent rather than insecticides is more advantageous as it is safer for humans and other organisms indirectly affected, additionally, targets P. fuliginosa directly.[13]
Additional images
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Young instar nymphs
References
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Appel, A. G., & Smith II, L. M. (2002). Biology and management of the smokybrown cockroach. Annual Review of Entomology, 47, 33–55
- ^ a b c d e f g h Fleet, R. R., Piper, G. L., & Frankie, G. W. (1978). Studies on the population ecology of the smokybrown cockroach, Periplaneta fuliginosa, in a Texas outdoor urban environment. Environmental Entomology, 7, 807–814.
- ^ Grimaldi D., Engel M.S. (2005.) Evolution of the Insects, Cambridge University Press, New York City, NY, USA.
- ^ Smith, L. M., Appel, A. G., Mack, T. P., & Keever, G. J. (1999). Preferred temperature and relative humidity of males of two sympatric Periplaneta cockroaches (Blattodea: Blattidae) denied access to water. Environmental Entomology, 28, 935–942.
- ^ a b c d e f g Xian, X. (1998). Effects of mating on oviposition, and possibility of parthenogenesis of three domestic cockroach species, the American cockroach Periplaneta americana; the smoky brown cockroach, Periplaneta fulginosa; and the German cockroach, Blattella germanica. Medical Entomology and Zoology, 49, 27–32.
- ^ Smith, L. M., Appel. A. G., West, M. S., Mack, T. P., & Keever, G. J. (1996). Morphology and body composition predict ovipositional history of female smokybrown cockroaches (Dictyoptera: Blattidae) in the laboratory. Journal of Medical Entomology, 33, 926–932.
- ^ a b Takahashi, S., Watanabe, K., Saito, S., & Nomura, Y. (1995). Isolation and biological activity of the sex pheromone of the smoky brown cockroach, Periplaneta fuliginosa Serville (Dictyoptera: Blattidae). Applied Entomology and Zoology, 30, 357–360.
- ^ a b c d Appel, A. G., & Rust. M. K. (1986). Time-activity budgets and spatial distribution patterns of the smokybrown cockroach, Periplaneta fuliginosa (Dictyoptera: Blattidae). Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 79, 104–108.
- ^ a b c Appel, A. G., Reierson, D. A., & Rust, M. K. (1986). Cuticular water loss in the smokybrown cockroach, Periplaneta fuliginosa. Journal of Insect Physiology, 32, 623–628.
- ^ a b c d Appel, A. G., & Rust, M. K. (1985). Water distribution and loss in response to acclimation at constant humidity in the smokybrown cockroach, Periplaneta fuliginosa (Serville). Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, 80, 377–380.
- ^ a b c Ichinose, T., & Kishimoto, M. (1982). The comparative morphology of the caudal secretory hypodermis of three species of cockroaches, Periplaneta fuliginosa SERV., P. japonica KARNY, and P. America L. (Orthoptera: Blattidae), with regard to their development and rearing densities. Applied Entomology and Zoology, 18, 191–199.
- ^ a b c d e Ozawa, S., Vicente, C., Sato, K., Yoshiga, T., Kanzaki, N., & Hasegawa, K. (2014). First report of the nematode Leidynema appendiculata from Periplaneta fuliginosa. Acta Parasitogica, 59, 219–228.
- ^ a b c d e Jiang, H., Zhou, L., Zhang, J. M., Dong, H. F., Hu, Y. Y., & Jiang, M. S. (2008). Potential of Periplaneta fuliginosa densovirus as a biocontrol agent for smoky-brown cockroach, P. fuliginosa. Biological Control, 46, 94–100.
- ^ Ozawa, S., & Hasegawa, K. (2018). Broad infectivity of Leidynema appendiculatum (Nematoda: Oxyurida: Thelastomatidae) parasite of the smokybrown cockroach Periplaneta fuliginosa (Blattodea: Blattidae). Ecology and Evolution, 8, 3908–3918.
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External links
- Black and white photographs of top view of P. fuliginosa male and female specimens, from Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections.
- Drawings of body parts of male P. fuliginosa; plate VII, figures 20–24 show detail of the pronotum, end of abdomen with cerci, supra-anal plate, subgenital plate, and genital process. From a 1917 article[1] by Morgan Hebard, with a key to the figures on page 281.
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- ^ Hebard, Morgan (1917). "The Blattidae of North America north of the Mexican boundary". Memoirs of the American Entomological Society (2). American Entomological Society. (The article comprises the whole issue.)