Battle of Saipan

Battle of Saipan
Part of the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign of the Pacific Theater (World War II)
Marines take cover behind an M4 medium tank while clearing Japanese forces in northern Saipan, 8 July 1944.
Date 15 June – 9 July 1944 (1944-06-15 – 1944-07-09) (24 days) Location Saipan, Mariana Islands Result American victory
Belligerents
United States	Japan
Commanders and leaders
Richmond K. Turner Holland Smith	Chūichi Nagumo † Yoshitsugu Saitō †
Units involved
V Amphibious Corps	31st Army
Strength
Assault: 71,034 Garrison: 23,616 Total: 94,650	Army: 25,469 Navy: 6,160 Total: 31,629
Casualties and losses
Land forces: 3,100–3,225 killed 326 missing 13,061–13,099 wounded Ships personnel: 51+ killed 32+ missing 184+ wounded	25,144+ dead (buried as of 15 August) 1,810 prisoners (as of 10 August) Remaining ~5,000 committed suicide, killed/captured later, or holding out
8,000–10,000 civilian deaths

The Battle of Saipan was an amphibious assault launched by the United States against the Empire of Japan during the Pacific campaign of World War II between 15 June and 9 July 1944. The battle resulted in the American occupation of the island, putting the Japanese home islands within the range of United States Army Air Forces B-29 bombers and precipitating the resignation of Prime Minister of Japan Hideki Tōjō. It also triggered the Battle of the Philippine Sea, which effectively destroyed Japanese carrier-based airpower.

Saipan was the first objective in Operation Forager, the campaign to occupy the Mariana Islands that got underway at the same time the Allies were invading France in Operation Overlord. After a two-day naval bombardment, the U.S. 2nd Marine Division, 4th Marine Division, and the Army's 27th Infantry Division, commanded by Lieutenant General Holland Smith landed on the island and defeated the 43rd Infantry Division of the Imperial Japanese Army, commanded by Lieutenant General Yoshitsugu Saitō. Organized resistance ended when at least 3000 Japanese soldiers died in a final gyokusai attack, and afterward about 1000 civilians committed suicide.

The capture of Saipan pierced the Japanese inner defense perimeter and left the Japan vulnerable to strategic bombing. It forced the Japanese government to inform its citizens for the first time that the war was not going well. The battle claimed more than 46,000 military casualties and at least 8,000 civilian deaths. The high percentage of casualties suffered during the battle influenced American planning for future assaults, including the projected invasion of Japan.

Background

American strategic objectives

Map of Allied landings in the Pacific with Saipan circled in blue

Up to early 1944, Allied operations against the Japanese military in the Pacific were focused on securing the lines of communications between Australia and the United States. These operations had recaptured the Solomon Islands, eastern New Guinea, western New Britain, the Admiralty Islands, and the Gilbert and Marshall Islands. To defeat Japan, Admiral Ernest J. King, Commander in Chief, United States Fleet for the United States, sought to execute War Plan Orange, which the Naval War College had been developing for four decades in the event of a war. The plan envisioned an assault through the Central Pacific that originated from Hawaii, island-hopped through the Micronesia and the Philippines, forced a decisive battle with the Japanese navy, and brought about an economic collapse of Japan.

General Douglas MacArthur, Supreme Commander of Allied Forces in the Southwest Pacific Area, objected to King's proposed offensive. MacArthur argued that it would be costly and time-consuming, and it would pull resources away from his drive in the Southwest Pacific toward the Philippines. The Joint Chiefs of Staff decided in favor of King's plan, seeing it as strategically promising. MacArthur could continue his campaign, but priority was given to a Central Pacific drive led by Admiral Chester Nimitz, Commander-in-Chief, Pacific Ocean Areas.

King had decided that with the capture of the Gilberts and Marshalls, the Marianas would be the next objective. This goal been formally endorsed by the Allies at the Cairo Conference in November 1943, which set their invasion for 1 October 1944. The occupation of these islands–specifically Saipan, Tinian and Guam–would cut the sea and air route from the Japanese home islands to the western Pacific. King also thought that the strategic importance of the Marianas could draw the main Japanese fleet out for a major naval battle. General Henry H. Arnold, Chief of the Army Air Forces, supported the idea: The Marianas could provide secure airfields to sustain a strategic bombing offensive, as much of Japan's population centers and industrial areas were in the 1,600 mi (2,600 km) range of the new B-29 bomber.

The invasion the Marianas, codenamed Forager, was originally scheduled for October–November 1944. After the rapid conquest of the Marshall Islands, the Joint Chiefs of Staff decided on 12 March to moved the timetable for the invading the Marianas up to 15 June. The invasion fleet, consisting of over 500 ships and 300,000 men, got underway days before the Allied forces in Europe invaded France in Operation Overlord on 6 June 1944. Nimitz assigned Admiral Raymond Spruance, commander of the Fifth Fleet, to oversee the operation. Spruance put Rear Admiral Richmond Turner in charge of the amphibious fleet and Major General Holland Smith in charge of the ground forces of the V Amphibious Corps. These consisted of the 2nd and 4th Marine Division. Additionally, the 27th Infantry Division was held in reserve to be available for use anywhere in the Marianas.

Japanese defensive preparations

Japanese 6-inch (152 mm) coastal defense gun found on Saipan after the battle

American intelligence had estimated that there would be between 15,000 and 18,000 Japanese troops on Saipan at the time of the invasion. In actuality, there were double that number. Nearly 32,000 Japanese military personnel were on the island, including 6,000 naval troops. The Japanese hurriedly reinforced the island before the invasion, but many of the troop transports were sunk by U. S. submarines. For example, five of seven ships transporting the Japanese 43rd Division were sunk. Most of the troops were saved, but most of their equipment–including hats and shoes–were lost, which reduced their effectiveness. Other soldiers were stranded survivors headed to other islands when their ships were sunk. There were also about 80 tanks on the island, substantially more than the Americans had encountered in previous battles with the Japanese.

The Japanese defenses were set up to defeat an invading force at the beaches, when the invading troops were most vulnerable. These defenses focused on the most likely invasion locations, the western beaches south of Garapan. This made the defenses brittle. If an invading force broke through the beach defenses, there was no organized fallback position: the Japanese troops would have to rely on Saipan's rough terrain, especially its caves, for protection. The original plans called for a defense in depth that fortified the entire island if time allowed, but the Japanese were unable to complete their defenses by the time of the invasion. Much of the building material sent to Saipan, such as concrete and steel, had been sunk in transit by American submarines, and the timing of the invasion surprised the Japanese, who thought they had until November to complete their defense. As of June, many fortifications remained incomplete, available building materials were left unused, and many artillery guns were not properly deployed.

Japanese leadership on the island suffered from poor command coordination. Although Vice Admiral Chūichi Nagumo, Commander of the Central Pacific Area Fleet, had nominal oversight of the defenses in the Central Pacific. Lieutenant General Hideyoshi Obata, the commander of the Thirty-first Army who was responsible for the army's defense of the Marianas, refused to subordinate his command to a naval officer. Because Obata was not on the island when the invasion started, command of Saipan's army units fell to the senior army officer on the island, Lieutenant General Yoshitsugu Saitō, commander of the 43rd Division. But Obata's chief of staff, Major General Keiji Igeta, maintained a separate headquarters that was often out of touch with Saitō.

Saipan's military geography

Panorama from Mount Tapotchau looking southwest, 2017: Aslito Field is on the left, Charan Kanoa and invasion beaches are left of center, and Garapan is on the right

Unlike the small, flat coral atolls of the Gilberts and Marshalls, Saipan is a volcanic island with diverse terrain well suited for defense. It is approximately 47 sq mi (122 km²), and has a volcanic core surrounded by limestone. In the center of the island is Mount Tapotchau, which rises to 1,554 ft (474 m). From the mountain, a high ridge ran northward about seven miles to Mount Marpi. This area was filled with caves and ravines concealed by forest and brush, and the mountainous terrain would force tanks to stay on the island's few roads, which were poorly constructed.

The southern half of the island was where the principal airfield of the Marianas, Aslito Field, was located. It served as a repair stop and transit hub for Japanese aircraft headed toward other parts of the Pacific. This half of the island was flatter but covered with sugar cane fields because the island's economy became focused on sugar production after the Japanese government had taken over Saipan from Germany in 1914, Seventy percent of Saipan's acreage was dedicated to sugar cane. It was so plentiful that a narrow-gauge rail was built around the perimeter of the island to facilitate its transportation. These cane fields were an obstacle to attackers: they were difficult to maneuver in and provided concealment for the defenders.

Saipan was the first island of the war where the United States forces encountered a substantial Japanese civilian population, and the first where U. S. Marines encountered large urban centers. Approximately 26,000 to 28,000 civilians lived on the island primarily serving the sugar industry. The majority of them were Japanese subjects, most of whom were from Okinawa and Korea; a minority were Chamorro people. The largest towns on the island–the administrative center of Garapan with its population of 10,000, Charan Kanoa, and Tanapag– were on the western coast of the island, which was where the best landing beaches for an invasion were.

Opposing forces

Map showing the progress of the Battle of Saipan

Further information: Battle of Saipan order of battle

Further information: Central Marianas naval order of battle

United States
US Fifth Fleet
Admiral Raymond A. Spruance

Northern Attack Force (Task Force 52)

Vice Admiral Richmond Kelly Turner

Expeditionary Troops (Task Force 56)

Lieut. General Holland M. Smith, USMC

Approx. 59,800 officers and enlisted

V Amphibious Corps (Lt. Gen. Smith)

2nd Marine Division (Maj. Gen. Thomas E. Watson, USMC)

4th Marine Division (Maj. Gen. Harry Schmidt, USMC)

Expeditionary Troops reserve (Lt. Gen Smith)

27th Infantry Division (Army) (Maj. Gen. Ralph C. Smith, USA)

Japan

Nagumo and his staff on Saipan, 1944. Nagumo is in the front row, sixth from the left

Central Pacific Area Fleet HQ
Vice Admiral Chūichi Nagumo
Approx. 6,200 navy personnel

Thirty-first Army

Lieut. General Hideyoshi Obata

Defenses of Saipan

Lieut. General Yoshitsugu Saitō

Approx. 25,500 army personnel

43rd Division (Lt. Gen. Saitō)

47th Independent Mixed Brigade

Miscellaneous units

Battle

June 11–14: Preparatory attacks

LVTs heading for shore on 15 June 1944. Birmingham in foreground; the cruiser firing in the distance is Indianapolis

On June 11, over 200 F6F Hellcats from Vice Admiral Marc Mitscher's Task Force 58 launched a surprise attack on Japanese airfields in Saipan and Tinian, putting approximately 130 Japanese aircraft out of operation at the cost of 11 American aircraft. The attack took out nearly one-third of the 435 planes in Vice Admiral Kakuji Kakuta's 1st Air Fleet, which had been deployed to defend the Marianas, and gave the Americans air superiority over Saipan. Planes from the task force continued their attacks until June 14, harassing fields, bombing military targets, and burning cane fields on the southern half of Saipan. By end of the week, the 1st Air Fleet had been reduced to about 100 aircraft.

On 13 June, seven fast battleships and 11 destroyers under Vice Admiral Willis Lee began the naval bombardment of Saipan. The bombardment damaged much of Garapan and Charan Kanoa, but was relatively ineffective at destroying the island's defenses because most of the battleship crews had not been trained in shore bombardment and the ships fired from more than 5.5 miles (8.9 km) to avoid potential minefields. The following day, seven older battleships, 11 cruisers, and 26 destroyers commanded by Rear Admiral Jesse B. Oldendorf took over the attack. The crews were trained in shore bombardment, and moved closer to shore because the sea was found to be free of mines. The attacks destroyed many emplaced anti-aircraft positions, but most of the beach defenses remained intact.

June 15: D-Day

American amphibious landing

Soldiers and equipment from the 2nd Marine Division on Red Beach at 13:00 on 15 June.

June 15 was D-Day for the amphibious landing, which began around 08:40. Naval and aerial bombardments in preparation for the landings began earlier in the morning, disrupting the Japanese communications network. The guns of the warships would provide supporting fire continued throughout the day.

Inferno, a 1944 oil painting by William F. Draper of the destruction of the sugar mill at Charan Kanoa on 15 June (Navy Art Collection, Naval History and Heritage Command)

The V Amphibious Corps landed on the southwest beaches of Saipan. The 2nd Marine Division landed on two beaches, named Red and Green, of Charan Kanoa, and the 4th Marine Division landed on the beaches, named Blue and Yellow, south of the town. Approximately 700 Amphibious vehicles participated in the assault, including 393 amphibious tractors and 140 amphibious tanks. Within 20 minutes, there were 8000 men on the beaches.

The beaches were fortified by trenches and a few pillboxes, but the landings were mainly contested by constant and intensive fire by Japanese artillery, mortars, and machine guns. The Japanese had concentrated at least 50 large artillery pieces on the high ground and reversed slopes around the invasion beaches, and had placed pennants on the beach for accurate ranging. The Americans suffered over 2,000 casualties, the majority were due to the artillery and mortar fire. Additionally, 164 amphibious tractors and amphibious tanks, about 40% of those engaged during the day, had been destroyed or damaged.

By the end of the day, the Marines managed to establish a bridgehead about 5.5 mi (9 km) along the beach and 0.5 mi (1 km) inland, and had unloaded artillery and tanks. But the bridgehead was only about two-thirds the size of the planned objective, the two Marine divisions were separated by a wide gap just north of Charan Kanoa, and the Japanese artillery remained intact on the high ground surrounding the beach.

When darkness fell, Saito launched a series of night attacks to push the Americans back into the sea. Japanese launched repeated counterattacks during the night and the early hours of the following morning, mostly by poorly coordinated small units. All the attacks were repulsed, partly by the firepower provided by the tanks and artillery that had been during the day as well as by American warships that illuminated the combat areas with star shells.

Japanese naval response

The Japanese Imperial War Council established the "Exclusive National Defense Sphere" In September 1943, which was bounded by the Kuril Islands, Bonin Islands, the Marianas, Western New Guinea, Malaya, and Burma. This was considered to a defensive line to be held at all costs if Japan was to win the war. The Imperial Japanese Navy planned to hold this line by defeating the United States fleet in a single decisive battle. Any American attempt to breach this line would serve as the trigger to start the battle. After their defeat, the Americans were expected to negotiate for peace.

Once Admiral Soemu Toyoda, Commander-in-Chief of the Combined Fleet, was certain that Saipan was the target of an invasion, he initiated his response. Less than a half hour after the start of the amphibious invasion, he announced the implementation of Operation A-Go, the Japanese Navy's current plan to destroy the American fleet. He then sent a message to the entire fleet that repeated Admiral Heihachirō Tōgō's before Japan's decisive naval battle against Russia at Tsushima in 1905, which in turn echoed Horatio Nelson's signal at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805: "The fate of the Empire rests upon this single battle. Every man is expected to do his utmost."

Originally, the Japanese Navy sought to have the battle take place in the Palaus or Western Carolines, and MacArthur's invasion of Biak had led them to believe that they could lure the American fleet there. After the preinvasion bombardment of Saipan, Toyoda guessed Saipan was the target and ordered Vice Admiral Matome Ugaki who commanded the super battleships Yamato and Musashi to rendezvous with Vice Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa, commander of the 1st Mobile Fleet and to rendezvous in the Philippine Sea to attack the American fleet around Saipan. The Japanese fleet, which had 9 aircraft carriers, 5 battleships, and nearly 500 airplanes was outnumbered by the American fleet, which had 16 aircraft carriers, 7 battleships, and almost 1000 airplanes. But the longer range of the Japanese planes allowed them the opportunity to strike the Americans without fear of immediate retaliation, the availability of airbases on the Marianas gave the carrier planes a place to land and quickly rearm for additional strikes, and there were supposed to be around 500 land-based planes from Kakuta's First Airfleet available to help destroy the American fleet.

June 16–20: Southern Saipan

Japanese tank attack and the capture of Aslito field

File:Soldiers of 27th Infantry Division moving inland, Saipan 1944.webp

Soldiers of 27th Infantry Division moving inland after landing on 16 June

On 16 June, Holland Smith committed his reserves to reinforce the beachhead, ordering two of the three regiments of the 27th Infantry Division to land, and the proposed 18 June invasion of Guam was indefinitely postponed. The two Marine divisions on Saipan spent most of the day consolidating the beachhead. The 2nd Marine Division began to close the gap between the two divisions north of Charan Kanoa, and the 4th Marine Division cleared the area around Aginan point on the southwest of the Island.

Japanese Type 97 medium tank knocked out in 17 June attack

During the night, Saitō launched a tank assault on the flank of the beachhead just north of Charan Kanoa with approximately 30 Type 97 medium tanks and Type 95 light tanks and about 1000 soldiers. The attack was poorly coordinated. Nagamo's naval troops, who were supposed to be part of the attack, did not cooperate. The attack was broken up by bazookas, 37 mm anti-tank guns, M4 medium tanks, and self-propelled 75mm howitzers. around 31 Japanese tanks were destroyed.

View of Aslito Field with A6Ms Zeros captured by U.S. forces on 18 June

In the following days, the 2nd Marine Division on the northern half of the bridgehead cleared the area around Lake Susupe and reached the objectives for the first day of the invasion, and slowly moved north toward Garapan and Mount Tapotchou. In the southern half of the bridgehead, the 4th Marine Division, including elements of the 27th Infantry Division, began their advance on Aslito Field. On 18 June, the 27th Infantry Division, which was now fighting as a, captured the field as the Japanese withdrew to Nafutan Point in the southeast of the island. The 4th Marine Division had reached the island's eastern coast, cutting off the Japanese troops at Nafutan Point from the north. During this time, Saitō was falsely rumored to have been killed. Igeta erroneously reported Saitō's death to Tokyo, though he corrected the report the later.

Holland Smith ordered the 27th Infantry Division to quickly capture Nafutan Point but it was unable to do so. Intelligence had estimated that there were no more than 300 Japanese soldiers in the area, but there were more than 1000 defending the rough terrain. The battle for the point would continue for over a week.

By 19 June, the Japanese forces on the island had been reduced by about half. Saitō began withdrawing his troops to a new defensive line in the center of the island. By this time, the Americans had suffered over 6,000 casualties. The Marine divisions headed north toward the new Japanese defenses, and Holland Smith called for the final reserve of the Expeditionary Forces, ordering the last regiment of the 27th infantry Division to land on Saipan on June 20.

Battle of Philippine Sea

Main article: Battle of Philippine Sea

An LVT Comes Ashore, Saipan, a 1944 oil painting by William F. Draper .(Navy Art Collection, Naval History and Heritage Command)

To prepare for the upcoming naval battle, the American transports continued to unload supplies and reinforcements throughout June 17. The following day, the transports sailed east toward safety while the warships prepared to engage the Japanese fleet. On June 19-20, the fleets fought an aircraft carrier battle. The Japanese struck first, launching four large air attacks on the American fleet, But the Japanese aviators were inexperienced and outnumbered: Very few of the anticipated land-based planes were available, and those that were had little effect.

The Japanese lost almost 500 planes and almost all their aviators; their carrier forces were left with only 35 operable aircraft. The Americans lost about 130 planes and 76 aviators. An American counterstrike sunk a Japanese carrier, and American submarines sunk two others, including Ozawa's flagship Taihō. The battle sealed the fate for the Japanese forces defending Saipan. Though they did not know it, they could not expect expect further assistance. Although the Japanese command was determined to fight to the last person, it was doomed to lose a battle of attrition.

21-24 June: Central Saipan, initial attack

Marines confronting rough terrain with a limestone cave typical of central and north Saipan

Saitō's new defense line stretched from Garapan on the west coast to the southern slopes of Mount Tapachou across to Magicienne Bay on the east coast. It held most of the island's high ground, which allowed the Japanese to observe American movements, and the rough terrain was filled with caves concealed by brush.

The American forces prepared for a frontal assault on Saitō's line using all three divisions. The attack began on June 22. The 2nd Marine Division was on the western coast moved toward Garapan and Mount Tapotchau; the 4th Marine Division advanced along the eastern coast, which created gaps in the lines in the hilly ground between the two divisions. That evening, the 27th Infantry Divison, less the regiment left to reduce Nafutan point, was ordered to move up into the difficult terrain between the two Marine divisions.

The next day, the Marine divisions on the flanks made progress, but the 27th Infantry Division, which started its attack late, stalled in its assault on a valley surrounding a low lying ridge that was defended by about 4,000 Japanese soldiers. The battle around these features, which American soldiers nicknamed these "Death Valley" and "Purple Heart Ridge", beginning to bend the line of the American advance into a horseshoe, creating gaps in the Marine divisions flanks and forcing them to halt.

Frustrated by what he saw as lack of progress by the 27th Division, Holland Smith relieved its commander, Major General Ralph Smith, and temporarily replaced him another Army officer, Major General Sanderford Jarman. The debate over the appropriateness of Holland's Smith action–a Marine general dismissing an Army general–immediately created an inter-service controversy. Despite the replacement of the 27th Infantry Division's commander, it would take six more days for the valley to be captured.

25-30 June: Central Saipan, breakthrough

American firepower

IHC M–2–4 rocket trucks firing a barrage

The United States' forces had built up substantial firepower to continue their northward drive. On 22 June, P-47s from the Seventh Air Force landed on Aslito field and immediately began launching ground assault missions. On the same day, the XXIV artillery corps had moved 24 155 mm field guns and 24 155 mm howitzers into place to fire on Japanese positions. The Americans also used truck-launched rockets for saturation barrages. Spotters flying in L-2 Grasshoppers helped direct ground artillery, and Navajo code talkers relayed information about Japanese troop movements.

By June 24, the American warships that had returned from the Battle of Philippine sea were once more available to provide fire support. These ships, which were well supplied with star shells, provided illumination over the island during the night disrupting Japanese night attacks, which had been successful in previous campaigns. This naval support, which played an important role in breaking up Japanese resistance, was often facilitated by joint assault signal companies that directed both naval and aerial firepower to where it was needed by the ground forces.

A "Satan", an M3 light tank with a Ronson flamethrower, incinerates a Japanese pillbox

The Americans had other assets as well. Over 150 tanks–over 100 of which were M4 medium tanks–had been committed to the invasion. The M4 medium tank was superior to the Japanese Type 97 tank. It was primarily used to support infantry and was considered one of the most effective weapons for destroying enemy emplacements. Flame throwers were extensively used. Smith had seen the need for motorized flamethrowers and had requested that the Army's Chemical Warfare Service (CWS) in Hawaii install them in M3 light tanks. Seabees with the CWS had 24 of the vehicles, dubbed "Satans", available in time for the invasion They were very effective for destroying pillboxes, cave defenses. buildings, canefields, and brush. In the hills, soldiers relied on personal flamethrowers, particularly in locations where the motorized flamethrowers could not reach. The Americans gradually developed tactics for effectively reducing caves, using a combination of flamethrowers and demolition charges to clear them, or sometimes using demolitions to seal them off.

On 27 June, Igeta's 31st Army Headquarters sent a telegram from the island stating the Japanese would not be able to hold due to the American preponderance in artillery, sea and air power, as well of a lack of equipment and supplies, including food and water. Saito singled out naval gunfire undermining the Japanese' ability to fight successfully against the Americans. The lack of water was a major problem, especially in the limestone caves the Japanese soldiers used for defense.

Igeta reported that some soldiers hadn't had water for three days and were surviving on snails and tree leaves. Japanese communications were so disrupted that at one point during the week, Igeta could only account for 950 of the Japanese soldiers.

American advance and Japanese break out at Nafutan Point

On 25 June, the 27th Infantry Division was not able to make much headway in their fight for Death Valley. But the 2nd Marine Division to the west gained control of Mount Tapotchau, the key artillery observation posts in Central Saipan. On the east coast, the 4th Marine Division quickly occupied most of the Kagman peninsula, meeting little organized resistance because the Japanese had evacuated the peninsula. Between 26 June and 30 June, the 2nd Marine Division and the 27th Infantry Division had made little progress. The second Marines remained south of Garapan and were slowly fighting their way north of Mount Topatchau. The 4th Marine Division was able to advance up the eastern coast to a line just north of the village of Hashigoru.

About 500 Japanese soldiers broke out of Nafutan point on the night of June 26. They headed toward Aslito field, destroying one P-47 and damaging two others. They then ran into a unit of Marines who were in reserve and a unit of Marine artillery. Almost all the Japanese soldiers were killed in the ensuing firefight. The next day, the elements of the 27th Infantry Division that had been fighting at the point moved in to occupy the area, no survivors were found.

Army Major General George Griner, who had been sent for from Hawaii, took over from command of the 27th Infantry Division on 28 June. Jarman, whose command had been temporary, returned to his assign role as garrison commander of the island. On 30 June, the 27th Infantry Division captured Death Valley and Purple Heart Ridge, and advance far enough to reestablish contact with the two Marine divisions on their flanks. The Saitō's main line of defense in Central Saipan had been breached; and the Japanese began their retreat north to their final defensive line. To date, American casualties were about 11,000.

1–6 July: Pursuit into northern Saipan

Marines advancing through the ruins of Garapan on 3 July

Saitō intended to form a new line northern Saipan that was anchored on Tanapag on the west, went southeast to a village called Tarahoho, through to the east coast. But his army's cohesion was disintegrating. Some of the remaining forces moved north, others holed up in whatever caves they could find and put up sporadic, disorganized resistance. During 2–4 July, the 2nd Marine Division took the ruins of Garapan and its harbor. The 4th Marine Division quickly moved north on the west coast in the face of light resistance. As Saitō's attempt to form the defense line collapsed, he eventually moved his final headquarters near Makunsha village on the west coast north of Tanapag.

On 4 July, the 27th Infantry Division and 4th Marine Division headed northwest. The 27th division reached the east coast at Flores Point, south of Tanapag, cutting off any Japanese retreating from Garapan. The 2nd Marine Division no longer faced organized resistance, and went into reserve. The 27th Infantry Division was to move up the east coast toward Tanapag, and the 4th Marine Division would advance northwest. On 5 July, the 27th Infantry Division encountered strong resistance in a narrow canyon on the east coast north of Tanapag that they dubbed "Harikari Gulch", which expanded into a two-day battle.

The 4th Marine Division continued to make rapid progress north during 4–5 July, and on July 6, Holland Smith ordered them to head toward the eastern coast near Makunsha to cut off the Japanese forces fighting the 27th Infantry Division, then the Marines would complete the occupation of the rest of northern Saipan on their own. In the evening, the Marines had taken Mount Petosukara, one of the last mountains before reaching the northern tip of the island, but the units that turned toward Makunsha encountered too much resistance to reach the eastern coast.

Saitō realized he could not create a final defensive line. His headquarters, which had been under constant artillery attack for days, was now in the range of American machine guns. What was left of his command was trapped in a northern corner of the island, almost out of food and water, and slowly being destroyed by overwhelming American firepower. On 6 July, Saitō decided the situation was hopeless and sent out orders for the remainder of his forces to perform gyokusai, one final suicide attack to destroy as many of the enemy as possible. He set the attack for the following day to give the troops a chance to concentrate what was left of his forces and put his divisional chief of Staff, Colonel Takuji Suzuki, in charge. That night, Saitō ate a last meal and committed seppuku; Nagumo killed himself around the same time.

7–9 July: Gyokusai attack and battle's end

Soldiers of the 2nd Marine Division advancing north on Tanapag Plain on July 8 after gyokusai attack

At least 3000 Japanese combatants participated in the gyokusai attack. They assembled near Makunsha. The force included naval personnel, support troops, civilians, and the walking wounded. It included three tanks, supporting mortars, and machine guns, but some troops were only armed with sticks with bayonets, knives, or grenades tied to poles. It would be the largest gyokusai attack of the Pacific War.

At around 04:00, Suzuki's force advanced south along the western coastal area, called the Tanapag plain, toward where his reconnaissance patrols had found a weak spot in the American line near Tanapag village: two battalions of the 105 Infantry Regiment of the 27th Infantry Division were isolated from the other American forces. The main force struck the two battalions at about 04:45, overrunning both and inflicting 80% casualties, it overran two batteries of Marine artillery. The charge continued toward Tanapag village, but was halted in the late morning by a hastily-formed American line around the village. The fighting continued throughout the day, as American soldiers struggled against scattered elements of the gyokusai attack and recaptured lost ground.

On July 8, most of the 27th Infantry Division, which had suffered high losses in the gyokusai attack, were placed into reserve. The 2nd Marine Division advanced up the Tanapag plain, looking for Japanese stragglers. The 4th Marine Division reached the Western coast north of Makunsha and headed toward, Marpi point, near the island's northern-most tip. As they advanced, they saw hundreds of Japanese civilians die on inland and coastal cliffs. Some threw themselves off, others were thrown or pushed off. By the evening of July 9, the 4th Marine Division had reached the northern end of the Island and Turner declared the island secure. On the second day of the battle, he had estimated that the Saipan would be captured in a week; it had taken 24 days. On 11 July, the Americans found the body of general Saitō. He was buried on 13 July with full military honors in a coffin draped with the Japanese flag.

Further resistance

Though the island was declared secured, the fighting and suicides would continue. Clearing the hundreds of scattered Japanese soldiers hiding in caves would take many more months, though the responsibilities were handed over to the Army Garrison Force. One group of about 50 Japanese men–soldiers and civilians–was led by Captain Sakae Ōba, who survived the last banzai charge. His group evaded capture and conducted guerrilla-style attacks, raiding American camps for supplies. Oba's resistance earned him the nickname "the Fox". His men held out for approximately 16 months before surrendering on 1 December 1945, three months after the official surrender of Japan.

Casualties

First Lieutenant Robert Sheeks talks a woman with children and a dog into leaving a hillside cave on June 21

Almost the entire Japanese garrison–approximately 30,000 military personnel– were killed in the battle. Eventually 1700, about half of whom were Korean workers, were taken prisoner. American forces suffered about 16,500 casualties–3,100 killed and 13,000 wounded– out of 71,000 who were part of the assault force. The casualty rate was over 20%, which was comparable to Tarawa. It was the Americans most costly battle in the Pacific up to that time.

Approximately 40% of the civilians on Saipan were killed. Around 14,000 survived and were interned, but an estimated 8,000 to 10,000 died during the fighting or shortly afterwards. Many civilians died from the bombing, shelling and cross-fire. Others died because they hid in caves and shelters that were indistinguishable from Japanese combat positions, which the Marines typically destroyed with explosives, grenades and flamethrowers. Though many civilians were able to surrender early in the battle. surrender became more difficult as the battle moved into the northern mountains. Obscuring terrain made it hard to distinguish combatants and surrendering civilians, who risked being killed by both sides. Many refused to surrender because they believed rumors that the Japanese fleet was coming to rescue them. Others refused because of the fear spread by Japanese propaganda that Americans would rape, torture and kill them; others were coerced. Around 1000 civilians committed suicide during the final days of the battle, many of them days after 9 July when the island had been declared secure. The places they jumped from would become known as "Suicide Cliff" and "Banzai Cliff".

Aftermath

The invasion of Saipan in Operation Forager and the invasion of France in Operation Overlord demonstrated the dominance of American industrial power. Both were massive amphibious invasions–the two largest up to that time–and they were launched almost simultaneously on separate halves of the globe. Because the Battle of Saipan began just over a week after the 6 June landings for Overlord, its importance has often been overlooked. But just as Overlord was a major step in contributing to the fall of the Third Reich, Saipan marked a major step in the collapse of the Empire of Japan.

Impact on Japanese political situation

Collapse of defense perimeter

Map showing strategic implication of Saipan's fall: Japanese Exclusive National Defense Sphere is pierced and the Japanese home islands are within the 1,600 mi (2,600 km) range of the B-29 bomber

The capture of Saipan, along with MacArthur's victory in Hollandia, pierced the Japanese Exclusive National Defense Sphere. Saipan's loss had a greater impact in Japan than all its previous defeats. In July, the Chief of the War Guidance department of Imperial General Headquarters Colonel Sei Matsutani, drafted a report stating that the conquest of Saipan destroyed all hope of winning the war. Even the Emperor of Japan, Hirohito, acknowledged that the loss of Saipan would result in Tokyo being bombed. After the Japanese defeat at the Battle of Philippine sea, Hirohito demanded that the Japanese General Staff plan another naval attack to prevent its fall. Hirohito only accepted Saipan's loss on June 25 when his advisors told him all was lost. When the war ended, Vice Admiral Shigeyoshi Miwa stated "Our war was lost with the loss of Saipan," and Fleet Admiral Osami Nagano also acknowledged Saipan was the decisive battle of the war, saying "When we lost Saipan, Hell is on us."

Fall of government

Japan's loss of Saipan brought the collapse of Prime Minister of Japan Hideki Tōjō's government. Disappointed with the progress of the war, Hirohito withdrew his support of Tōjō, who resigned on 18 July. He was replaced by former General Kuniaki Koiso, who was a less capable leader.

Civilian morale

Woman holds a baby as she returns to an internment camp in Saipan, June 1944

Saipan's fall led the Japanese government's war reporting to tell its citizens for the first time that the war was going poorly. In July, imperial Japanese headquarters published a statement providing a summary detail of the battle and the loss of the island. The government also allowed a translation of a Time magazine article, which included the civilian suicides on the last days of the battle, to be published in The Asahi Shimbun, Japan's largest newspaper, while the battle was in progress. Before the battle had ended, the Japanese government issued the "Outline for the Evacuation of Schoolchildren" in June, anticipating of the bombing of Japan's cities. This evacuation, the only compulsory one enacted during the war, separated more than 350,000 third- through sixth-graders who lived in major cities from their families and sent them into the countryside.

Impact on American military strategy

Planning for casualties

American planners used the losses in Saipan as a measure of casualties that could be expected in the future. This "Saipan ratio"–one killed American and several wounded for every seven Japanese soldier killed– became one of the justifications for American planners to increase conscription, projecting an increased need for replacements in the war on Japan. Its prediction of high casualties was part of the reason that the Joint Chiefs of Staff did not approve an invasion of Taiwan. The Saipan ratio guided the initial estimate that the invasion of Japan would cost up 2,000,000 American casualties, including 500,000 killed. Though these estimates would be revised downward later, they would still influence politicians' thinking about the war well into 1945.

Naval air dominance

The landing on Saipan triggered the Battle of the Philippine Sea, a fleet battle resulting in major defeat for the Japanese Navy. In the battle, Japan's most powerful weapon, airpower, was destroyed: The Japanese fleet lost 90% of its carrier planes and over 450 trained aviators, leaving the remaining aircraft carriers effectively useless. The battle also demonstrated that the American Navy could dominate the skies anywhere in the Pacific using only carrier-based aircraft.

Strategic bombing

Isely Field, filled with B-29 bombers, mid-1945

The availability of Saipan as an American airbase opened a new phase in the Pacific War, in which strategic bombing would play a major role. The Army Air Force had been an major advocate for the capture of the Marianas. They were confident that strategic bombing could destroy Japan's military production, and argued that the Marianas provided excellent airbases for doing so because they were 1,200 mi (1,000 nmi; 1,900 km) miles from the Japanese home islands. This put almost all of Japan's industrial cities in within striking distance of the B-29 bomber, which typically had a 1,600 mi (1,400 nmi; 2,600 km) mile combat radius. Basing the B-29s in the Marianas was superior to their previous deployment in China because they were closer to Japan. The islands were also easy to defend and supply.

The invasion of Saipan on June 15 was synchronized bombing of the Yawata Steel Works by B-29s in China. It was the first bombing of the Japan home islands by B-29s and signaled the beginning of a bombing campaign that could strike deep into Japan's Exclusive National Defense Sphere. Saipan was the first island to base the B-29s. The 73rd Bombardment Wing began arriving on 12 October. On 24 November, 111 B-29s set out for Tokyo in the first strategic bombing mission against Japan from the Marianas. The Marianas-based B-29s were a significant force in leading Japanese leaders to the conclusion that surrender would be in Japan's best interest.Baron Kantarō Suzuki, the Prime Minister of Japan just before its surrender, stated "the determination to make peace was the prolonged bombing by the B-29s," and Prince Fumimaro Konoye, who was Prime Minister when Japan invaded China in 1937, stated that it was "merely on the basis of the B-29s alone that I was convinced that Japan should sue for peace."

Memorials

Suicide Cliff and Banzai Cliff, along with surviving isolated Japanese fortifications, are recognized as historic sites on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places. The cliffs are also part of the National Historic Landmark District Landing Beaches; Aslito/Isley Field; & Marpi Point, Saipan Island, which also includes the American landing beaches, the B-29 runways of Isley Field, and the surviving Japanese infrastructure of the Aslito and Marpi Point airfields. The Maritime Heritage Trail has a series of dive sites with submerged, ships, planes, and tanks from the battle. The American Memorial Park commemorates the American and Mariana people who died during the Mariana Islands campaign, and The Central Pacific War Memorial Monument is dedicated to the memory of the Japanese soldiers and civilians who died.

• 
  American Memorial Park
• 
  Cenotaphs near Banzai Cliff
• 
  Banzai Cliff, with cenotaphs visible in the upper left corner

References

See also: Bibliography of the Battle of Saipan

Books

• Aaseng, Nathan (1992). Navajo Code Talkers. Walker. ISBN 0802776272. OCLC 49275457.
• Astroth, Alexander (2019). Mass Suicides on Saipan and Tinian, 1944: An Examination of the Civilian Deaths in Historical Context. McFarland. ISBN 9781476674568. OCLC 1049791315.
• Bishop, Chris, ed. (2014). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Weapons of World War II:A Comprehensives Guide to the Weapons Systems. Including Tanks, Small Arms, Warplanes, Artillery, Ships, and Submarines. Metro books. ISBN 9781782743880. OCLC 1310751361.}
• Bix, Herbert P. (2000). Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan. Harper Collins. ISBN 9780060193140. OCLC 43031388.
• Chapin, John C. (1994). The Battle for Saipan. Washington D.C.: United States Marine Corps Historical Division. PCN 19000312300.
• Craven, Wesley F.; Cate, James L., eds. (1983) [1953]. The Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki, June 1944 to August 1945. The Army Air Forces in World War II. Vol. 6. Office of Air Force History. ISBN 9780912799032. OCLC 9828710.
• Cressman, Robert J. (2000). The Official Chronology Of The U.S. Navy In World War II. Naval Historical Center. ISBN 9781682471548. OCLC 607386638.
• Crowl, Philip A. (1993) [1960]. Campaign in the Marianas. United States Army in World War II, The War in the Pacific. Vol. 9. Center of Military History, United States Army. OCLC 1049152860.
• Dower, John W. (2010). Cultures of War: Pearl Harbor, Hiroshima, 9-11, Iraq. New York: Norton New Press. ISBN 978-0-393-06150-5. OCLC 601094136.
• Frank, Richard B. (1999). Downfall: The End of the Imperial Japanese Empire. Random House. ISBN 9780679414247. OCLC 40783799.
• Forrestel, Emmet P. (1966). Admiral Raymond A. Spruance, USN;: A Study in Command. U. S. government Printing Office. OCLC 396044.
• Gailey, Harry A. (1986). Howlin' Mad Vs. the Army: Conflict in Command, Saipan 1944. Presidio Press. ISBN 0-89141-242-5. OCLC 13124368.
• Garand, George W.; Strobridge, Truman R. (1989) [1971]. "Part V. Marine Aviation in the Western Pacific: 2. Marine Aviation in the Marianas, Carolines, and at Iwo Jima". Western Pacific Operations. History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II. Vol. 4. Historical Branch, G–3 Division, Headquarters, U. S. Marine Corps. pp. 422–442. OCLC 1046596050.
• Goldberg, Harold J. (2007). D-Day in the Pacific: The Battle of Saipan. Indiana University Press, 2007. ISBN 978-0-253-34869-2. OCLC 73742593.
• Hallas, James H. (2019). Saipan: The Battle That Doomed Japan in World War II. Stackpole. ISBN 9780811768436. OCLC 1052877312.
• Harmsen, Peter (2021). War in the Far East: Asian Armageddon 1944–1945. Vol. 3. Casemate. ISBN 9781612006277. OCLC 1202754434.
• Havens, Thomas R. (1978). Valley of Darkness : The Japanese People and World War Two. Norton. ISBN 9780393056563. OCLC 1035086075.
• Heinrichs, Waldo H.; Gallicchio, Marc (2017). "The Marianas Campaign, June–August 1944". Implacable Foes: War in the Pacific, 1944–1945. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190616755. OCLC 962442415.
• Hiroyuki, Shindo (2022). "From the Offensive to the Defensive: Japanese strategy During the Pacific War, 1942–1944" (PDF). NIDS-ZMSBw Joint Research Project 2019–2021: Sharing Experiences in the 20th Century–Joint Research on Military History. NIDS Joint Research Series No. 19. National Institute for Defense Studies, Japan. ISBN 9784864821049. OCLC 1407570510. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 June 2022.
• Hoffman, Carl W. (1950). Saipan: The Beginning of the End. Historical Branch, United States Marine Corps. OCLC 564000243.
• Hopkins, William B. (2008). The Pacific War: The Strategy, Politics, and Players That Won the War. Zenith. ISBN 9780760334355. OCLC 1311044045.
• Hornfischer, James D. (2016). The Fleet at Flood Tide: The U.S. at Total War in the Pacific, 1944–1945. Random House Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0345548726.
• Hoyt, Edwin P. (2001) [1986]. Japan's War: The Great Pacific Conflict. ISBN 9780815411185. OCLC 45835486.
• Irokawa, Daikichi (1995). The Age of Hirohito: In Search of modern Japan. free Press. ISBN 9780029156650. OCLC 1024165290.
• Kawamura, Noriko (2015). Emperor Hirohito and the Pacific War. University of Washington Press. ISBN 9780295806310. OCLC 922925863.
• Kleber, Brooks E.; Birdsell, Dale (1990) [1966]. The Chemical Warfare Service: Chemicals in Combat. United States Army in World War II: The Technical Services. Center of Military History, United States Army. OCLC 35176837.
• Kort, Michael (2007). "The Japanese Government, Ketsu-Go, and Potsdam". Columbia Guide to Hiroshima and the Bomb. Columbia University. pp. 58–66. ISBN 9780231130165. JSTOR 10.7312/kort13016.9. OCLC 71286652.
• Lacey, Sharon T. (2013). Pacific Blitzkrieg: World War II in the Central Pacific. University of North Texas Press. ISBN 9781574415254. OCLC 861200312.
• Matloff, Maurice (1994) [1959]. Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare 1943–1944. United States Army in World War II: The War Department. Center of Military History, United States Army. OCLC 1048613899.
• McManus, John C. (2021). Island Infernos. Penguin. ISBN 9780451475060. OCLC 1260166257.
• Miller, Edward S. (1991), War Plan Orange: The U. S. strategy to Defeat Japan, 1897–1945, Naval Institute Press, ISBN 9780870217593, OCLC 23463775
• Meehl, Gerald A. (2012). One Marine’s War : A Combat Interpreter’s Quest for Humanity in the Pacific. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 9781612510927. OCLC 811408315.
• Millett, Allan R. (1980). Semper Fidelis: The History of the United States Marine Corps. Macmillan. ISBN 9780029215906. OCLC 1280706539.
• Morison, Samuel Eliot (1981) [1953]. New Guinea and the Marianas, March 1944–August 1944. History of United States Naval Operations in World War II. Vol. 8. Little Brown. ISBN 9780316583084. OCLC 10926173.
• Olson, James C.; Mortensen, Bernhardt L. (1983) [1950]. "The Marianas". In Craven, Wesley F.; Cate, James L. (eds.). The Pacific: Gauadalcanal to Saipan, August 1942 to July 1944. The Army Air Forces in World War II. Vol. 4. pp. 671–696. ISBN 9780912799032. OCLC 9828710.
• Pimlott, John (1980). B-29:Superfortress. Chartwell Books. ISBN 9780890093191. OCLC 119335541.
• Shaw, Henry I. Jr.; Nalty, Bernard C.; Turnbladh, Edwin T. (1989) [1966]. Central Pacific Drive. History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II. Vol. 3. Historical Branch, G–3 Division, Headquarters, U. S. Marine Corps. ISBN 9780898391947. OCLC 927428034.
• Smith, Robert R (1996) [1953]. The Approach to the Philippines. United States Army in World War II: The War in the Pacific. Center of Military History, United States Army. OCLC 35911873.
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• Tanaka, Yuki (2023). "Asia-Pacific War". In Hein, Laura E. (ed.). The Modern Japanese Nation and Empire c. 1868 to the Twenty-First Century (eBook). The New Cambridge History of Japan. Vol. III. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108164535.007. ISBN 9781108164535. OCLC 1382587192.
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• United States War Department Historical Division (1991) [1946]. "The Fight on Tanapag Plain: 27th Division, 6 July 1944". Small Unit Actions– France: 2d Ranger Battalion at Pointe du Hoe; Saipan: 27th Division on Tanapag Plain; Italy: 351st Infantry at Santa Maria Infante; France: 4th Armored Division at Singling. War Department, Historical Division. pp. 69–113. OCLC 519761473.
• Vlahos, Michael (1980). The Blue Sword: The Naval War College and the American Mission 1919–1941. Naval War College. OCLC 7577592.
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• Zaloga, Steven J. (2012). M4 Sherman vs. Type 97 Chi-Ha: The Pacific 1945. Osprey. ISBN 9781849086387. OCLC 798085213.
• Y'Blood, William T. (2003). Red Sun Setting: The Battle of the Philippine Sea. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 9781612511979. OCLC 1285751928.

Journal articles, reports and theses

• Allen, William B. (2012). Sacked at Saipan (Monograph). School of Advanced Military Studies, United States Army Command an General Staff College – via Defense Technical Information Center.
• Cloud, Preston; Schmidt, Robert G.; Burke, Harold W. (1956). Geology of Saipan: Mariana Islands- Part 1. General Geology (PDF) (Report). United States Geological Survey. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 February 2017.
• The Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands: Final Post Disaster Watershed Plan (Report). US Army Corps of Engineers. 2022. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 January 2024.
• Giangreco, D. M. (2003). "A Score of Bloody Okinawas and Iwo Jimas: President Truman and casualty estimates for the invasion of Japan". Pacific Historical Review. 72 (1): 93–132. JSTOR 10.1525/phr.2003.72.1.93.
• Gugeler, Russell A (1945). Army Amphibian Tractor and Tank Battalions in the Battle of Saipan (report). Office of the Chief of Military History. 8–5.3 BA. Archived from the original on 3 January 2008.
• Hallion, Richard P. (1995). "Prelude to Armageddon". Air Power History. 42 (3): 38–54. JSTOR 26284340.
• Hemler, Christopher K. (2018). Coordinating Destruction: Joint Assault Signal Companies in the Pacific War (PDF) (Masters thesis). Texas A & M University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 February 2024.
• Hughes, Matthew (2010). "When soldiers kill civilians: The battle for Saipan, 1944". History Today. 60 (2): 42–48. Archived from the original on 27 January 2010.
• Kaune, Charles S. (1990). The National Guard in War: An Historical Analysis of the 27th Infantry Division (New York National Guard) in World War II (Master's thesis). Columbus College – via Defense Technical Information Center.
• McKinney, Leonard L. (1949). Portable Flame Thrower Operations in World War II (book draft). Chemical Corps Historical Studies. Historical Office, Office of the Chemical Corps.
• McKinnon, Jennifer F. (2011). Inclusion and Negotiation: Interpreting Underwater Battlefield Sites for the Pacific (PDF) (proceedings). Proceedings of the Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage. Manila, Philippines. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 April 2015.
• Noriaki, Yashiro (2009). Japanese Strategy in the Second Phase of the Pacific War (PDF). National Institute for Defense Studies, Japan: International Forum on War History (Eighth Forum)–"Strategy in the Pacific War". Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 October 2017.
• Plung, Dylan J. (2021). "the impact of Urban evacuation on Japan during World War II". The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus. 19 (19). Archived from the original on 13 November 2021.
• Sullivan, Mark P. (1995). "Japan's Decision to Surrender". The Mechanism for Strategic Coercion: Denial or Second Order Change? (report). Air University Press. pp. 31–54. JSTOR resrep13891.9.
• Trefalt, Beatrice (2018). "The Battle of Saipan in Japanese civilian memoirs: non-combatants, soldiers and the complexities of surrender". Journal of Pacific History. 53 (3): 3. doi:10.1080/00223344.2018.1491300 – via academia.edu.

Online resources

• "American Memorial Park". National Park Foundation. Archived from the original on 1 October 2022.
• "American Memorial Park: Battle of Saipan". National Park Service. Archived from the original on 17 May 2022.
• Bisno, Adam (2019). "Operation Forager: The Battle of Saipan, 15 June–9 July 1944". Naval History and Heritage Command. Archived from the original on 6 December 2019.
• Gilhooly, Rob (15 May 2011). "Japan's Renegade Hero Gives Saipan New Hope". Japan Times. Archived from the original on 6 July 2015.
• "International M–2–4 Rocket Truck". The Marine Corps Mechanized Museum, Camp Pendleton, California. 2013. Archived from the original on 6 February 2020.
• "NHL nomination for Landing Beaches; Aslito/Isley Field; & Marpi Point, Saipan Island". National Park Service. Retrieved 14 April 2015.
• "サイパン慰霊祭 (Saipan Memorial Service)". 公益財団法人太平洋戦争戦没者慰霊協会 (Pacific War Memorial Association, inc.). Archived from the original on 30 December 2016.

Primary Sources

• Arnold, Henry H. (1949). Global Mission. Harper & Brothers. OCLC 1216324.
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• Joint Expeditionary Force (TF 51), Office of the Commander (1944). Report of the Capture of the Marianas (Report).{{cite report}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
• Sheeks, Robert B. (1945). "Civilians in Saipan". Far Eastern Survey. 14 (2): 109–113. doi:10.2307/3022063. JSTOR 3022063.
• Schmidt, Harry (1944). Report of Marianas Operation Phase I (Saipan) (PDF) (Report). Marine Corps Academy. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 June 2022.
• Smith, Holland M.; Finch, Percy (1949). Coral and Brass. Charles Scribner's Sons. OCLC 367235.
• Toyoda, Soemu (1946) [3 May 1944]. "Combined Fleet Ultrasecret Operation Order 76". In United States Strategic Bombing Survey, Naval analysis Division (ed.). The Campaigns of the Pacific War. Government Printing Office. pp. 226–231. OCLC 1041650487.
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• Willoughby, Charles A., ed. (1994) [1950]. Reports of General MacArthur: Japanese Operations in the Southwest Pacific Area. Vol. II, part I. U. S. Government Printing Office. OCLC 1054369044.

External links

• United News (1944). Allies Liberate Island of Elba Etc. Universal Newsreel. Invasion of Saipan starts at 5:55. Retrieved 21 February 2012..
• Battle for the Mariana Islands on YouTube