Muslim conquest of Iraq: Difference between revisions
m Bot: Fixing broken section link Tag: Redirect target changed |
←Removed redirect to Muslim conquest of Persia#First invasion of Mesopotamia (633) Tags: Removed redirect Reverted possible vandalism harv-error Visual edit Mobile edit Mobile web edit |
||
Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
{{Short description|7th-century conquest of the Sassanid Empire}} |
|||
#REDIRECT [[Muslim conquest of Persia#First invasion of Mesopotamia (633)]] |
|||
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}} |
|||
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=April 2021}} |
|||
{{Infobox military conflict |
|||
| image = IslamicConquestsIroon.png |
|||
| caption = Map of [[West Asia]], depicting the approximate territorial boundaries of the [[Byzantine Empire]], the [[Rashidun Caliphate]], and the [[Sasanian Empire]] prior to the Muslim conquests |
|||
| conflict = Muslim conquest of Iraq |
|||
| partof = the [[early Muslim conquests]] and [[Muslim conquest of Persia]] |
|||
| date = 632–654{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|pp=469}} |
|||
| place = [[Iraq]] |
|||
| result = Muslim victory |
|||
| territory = {{bulletedlist |
|||
| Expansion of the Rashidun Caliphate into the [[Iranian Plateau]] |
|||
| Rise of several Iranian dynasties in [[Tabaristan]] and [[Transoxiana]] resisting the Muslim invasion}} |
|||
| combatant1 = [[Rashidun Caliphate]] |
|||
| combatant2 = [[Sasanian Empire]]<hr>[[Caucasian Albania]]<br />(633–636)<br />[[Arab Christians]]<br />(633–637)<br />[[Kanarang|Kanārangīyāns]]<br />(633–651)<br />[[House of Ispahbudhan]]<br />(633–651)<br /> [[House of Mihran]]<br />(633–651)<br /> [[House of Karen]]<br />(633–654)<br />[[Dabuyids]]<br />(642–651)<br />[[Hephthalites]]<br />(651–654)<br /><small>'''Supported by:'''</small><br />[[File:Byzantine Calvary cross potent (transparent).png|10px]] '''[[Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty|Byzantine Empire]]''' (Until 641) |
|||
| commander1 = {{List collapsed|title=''See list''|1= '''[[Abu Bakr]]'''<br /><small>(Until 634)</small><br />'''[[Umar ibn al-Khattab]]'''{{Assassinated}}<br /> '''[[Uthman ibn Affan]]'''<br /> [[Khalid ibn al-Walid]]<br /><small>(633–634)</small><br /> [[al-Muthanna ibn Haritha]]{{WIA}}<br /> [[Abu Ubayd al-Thaqafi|Abu Ubayd]] {{KIA}}<br /> [[Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas]]<br /> Zuhra ibn Al-Hawiyya<br /> [[Hashim ibn Utba]]<br />al-Jarud ibn al-Mu'alla {{KIA}}<br />'Ubayd Allah ibn Ma'mar {{KIA}}<br /> [[Al-Qa'qa' ibn Amr al-Tamimi|Qa’qa ibn Amr]]<br />[[Shurahbil ibn Simt]]<br /> [[Tulayha ibn Khuwaylid ibn Nawfal al-Asadi|Tulayha]] {{KIA}}<br /> [[Amru bin Ma'adi Yakrib]] {{KIA}}<br /> [['Amr ibn al-'As]]<br /> [[Abu Musa Ashaari]]<br /> [[Ammar ibn Yasir]]<br /> [[Nouman ibn Muqarrin]] {{KIA}}<br />[[Al-Ala al-Hadhrami]]<br /> [[Arfajah]]<br /> [[Hudhayfah ibn al-Yaman]]<br /> [[Mugheera ibn Shuba]]<br /> [[Uthman ibn Abi al-As|Usman ibn Abi al-Aas]]<br /> [[Al-Qaqa ibn Amr al-Tamimi]]<br /> [[Asim ibn 'Amr al-Tamimi]]<br /> al-Sawwar ibn Hammam {{KIA}}<br /> [[Iyad ibn Ghanm]]<br /> Asim ibn Amr<br/ > Al-Hakam {{KIA}}<br /> Jabr {{KIA}}<br /> [[Khalid ibn Urfuta]]<br /> [[Ahnaf ibn Qais]]<br /> [[Abdullah ibn Aamir]]<br /> Khawlah bint Azwar<br /> [[Bukayr ibn Abdallah]]<br /> [[Kanadbak]]<br /> [[Busbuhra]]<br /><small>(Briefly)</small><br /> [[Farrukhzad]]}}<small>(Briefly)</small> |
|||
| commander2 = {{List collapsed|title=''See list''|1={{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} '''[[Yazdegerd III|Shah Yazdegerd III]]'''{{KIA|Assassinated}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} [[Rostam Farrokhzad]]{{KIA}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} [[Farrukhzad]] {{surrender}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} Mahbudhan<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} [[Hormozd Jadhuyih]]<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} [[Bahman Jadhuyih]]{{KIA}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} Anoshagan{{KIA}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} [[Andarzaghar]]<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} [[Piruz Khosrow]]{{KIA}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} Jaban{{POW}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} [[Mihran Bahram-i Chubin]]<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} [[Hormuzan]]{{POW}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} [[Mardanshah]]{{KIA}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} Bahram<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} [[Isfandiyar (Sasanian commander)|Isfandiyar]]{{surrender}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} [[Jalinus]]{{KIA}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} [[Mihran Razi]]{{KIA}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} Nakhiragan<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} [[Azadbeh]]<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} [[Siyavakhsh]]{{KIA}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} Shahriyar bin Kanara{{KIA}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} [[Busbuhra]]{{DOW}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} [[Shahriyar of Derbent]]{{KIA}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} Farrukbandadh{{KIA}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} [[Mihran-i Hamadani]]{{KIA}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} [[Shahrvaraz Jadhuyih]]{{KIA}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} Karin{{KIA}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} [[Mushegh III Mamikonian|Mushegh III]]{{KIA}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} Varaztirots{{KIA}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} [[Muta (Dailamite)|Muta]]{{KIA}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} [[Narsi]]<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} Tiruyih<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} Vinduyih<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} [[Kanadbak]]{{surrender}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} Shirzad<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} [[Mardanshah of Damavand]]{{surrender}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} [[Javanshir]]<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} [[Burzin Shah]]<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} [[Mahoe Suri]]{{surrender}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} Shahriyar<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} [[Siyah al-Uswari]]{{surrender}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} Shiruya al-Uswari{{Surrender}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} [[Aparviz of Sistan|Aparviz]]{{surrender}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} [[Shahrag]]{{KIA}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} [[Faylakan]]{{KIA}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} [[Yazdanfar]]{{surrender}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} Qubaz{{KIA}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} Ruzbih{{KIA}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} Zarmahr{{KIA}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} Jushnasmah{{KIA}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} Mihran bin Badhan {{KIA}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} Hormozd {{KIA}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} Mahak{{surrender}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} Fadhusfan<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} Rabi'a bin Bujair {{KIA}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} Aqqa ibn Qays ibn Bashir {{Executed}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} Iyas ibn Qabisah al-Ta'i<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} Huzail ibn Imran<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} Abd al-Masih<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} Abdul-Aswad {{KIA}}<br />{{flagicon image|Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg}} Abjar {{KIA}} |
|||
---- |
|||
[[File:Byzantine Calvary cross potent (transparent).png|10px]] '''[[Heraclius|Emperor Heraclius]]'''<br /><small>(Until 641)</small>}} |
|||
| strength1 = |
|||
| strength2 = |
|||
| casualties1 = |
|||
| casualties2 = |
|||
}} |
|||
{{Campaignbox Muslim conquest of Persia}} |
|||
{{Campaignbox Early Muslim Expansions}} |
|||
The '''Muslim conquest of Persia''', also called the '''Muslim conquest of Iran''', the '''Arab conquest of Persia''', or the '''Arab conquest of Iran''',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arab-ii|title=ʿARAB ii. Arab conquest of Iran|work=iranicaonline.org|access-date=18 January 2012|archive-date=26 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170926143303/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arab-ii|url-status=live}}</ref> was a major military campaign undertaken by the [[Rashidun Caliphate]] between 632 and 654. As part of the [[early Muslim conquests]], which had begun under [[Muhammad]] in 622, it led to the fall of the [[Sasanian Empire]] and the eventual decline of [[Zoroastrianism]], which had been predominant throughout [[Iranian Plateau|Persia]] as the nation's official religion. The [[persecution of Zoroastrians]] by the [[early Muslims]] during and after this conflict prompted many of them to flee eastward to [[Indian subcontinent|India]], where they were granted refuge by various kings. |
|||
While [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]] was experiencing the rise of [[Islam]] in the 7th century, Persia was struggling with unprecedented levels of political, social, economic, and military weakness; the [[Military of the Sasanian Empire|Sasanian army]] had greatly exhausted itself in the [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628]]. Following the execution of Sasanian shah [[Khosrow II]] in 628, Persia's internal political stability began deteriorating at a rapid pace. Subsequently, ten new royal claimants were enthroned within the next four years.<ref name="ReferenceA">The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch: 1 {{ISBN|978-0-19-597713-4}}</ref> Shortly afterwards, Persia was further devastated by the [[Sasanian civil war of 628–632|Sasanian Interregnum]], a large-scale civil war that began in 628 and resulted in the government's decentralization by 632. |
|||
{{R to section}} |
|||
Amidst Persia's turmoil, the first Rashidun invasion of Sasanian territory took place in 633, when the [[Rashidun army]] conquered parts of [[Asoristan]], which was the Sasanians' political and economic centre in [[Mesopotamia]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/betweenmemorydes1999hump |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/betweenmemorydes1999hump/page/180 180] |title=Between Memory and Desire|via=[[Internet Archive]] |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=9780520214118|last1=Stephen Humphreys|first1=R.|date=January 1999}}</ref> Later, the regional Rashidun army commander [[Khalid ibn al-Walid]] was transferred to oversee the [[Muslim conquest of the Levant]], and as the Rashidun army became increasingly focused on the [[Byzantine Empire]], the newly conquered Mesopotamian territories were retaken by the Sasanian army. The second Rashidun invasion began in 636, under [[Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas]], when a key victory at the [[Battle of al-Qadisiyyah]] permanently ended all Sasanian control to the west of modern-day [[Iran]]. For the next six years, the [[Zagros Mountains]], a natural barrier, marked the political boundary between the Rashidun Caliphate and the Sasanian Empire. In 642, [[Umar|Umar ibn al-Khattab]], eight years into his reign as Islam's second [[Caliphate|caliph]], ordered a full-scale invasion of the rest of the Sasanian Empire. Directing the war from the city of [[Medina]] in Arabia, Umar's quick conquest of Persia in a series of coordinated and multi-pronged attacks became his greatest triumph, contributing to his reputation as a great military and political strategist.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> In 644, however, he was assassinated by the Persian craftsman [[Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz]], who had been captured by Rashidun troops and brought to Arabia as a slave. |
|||
Some Iranian historians have defended their forebears by using Arab sources to illustrate that "contrary to the claims of some historians, Iranians, in fact, fought long and hard against the invading Arabs."<ref>Milani A. ''Lost Wisdom''. 2004 {{ISBN|978-0-934211-90-1}} p.15</ref> By 651, most of the urban centres in Iranian lands, with the notable exception of the provinces along the [[Caspian Sea]] (i.e., in [[Tabaristan]] and [[Transoxiana]]), had come under Muslim domination. Many localities fought against the invaders; although the Rashidun army had established hegemony over most of the country, many cities rose in rebellion by killing their Arab governors or attacking their garrisons. Eventually, military reinforcements quashed the Iranian insurgencies and imposed complete control. The [[Islamization of Iran]] was gradual and incentivized in various ways over a period of centuries, though some Iranians never converted and there were widespread cases of [[Avesta|Zoroastrian scriptures]] being burnt and [[Magi|Zoroastrian priests]] being executed, particularly in areas that experienced violent resistance.<ref>(Balāḏori, Fotuḥ, p. 421; Biruni, Āṯār, p. 35)</ref> Islam had become Iran's predominant religion by the [[Late Middle Ages]];<ref>Mohammad Mohammadi Malayeri, ''Tarikh-i Farhang-i Iran'' (Iran's Cultural History). 4 volumes. Tehran. 1982.</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=ʻAbd al-Ḥusayn Zarrīnʹkūb |author-link=Abdolhossein Zarinkoob |title=Dū qarn-i sukūt : sarguz̲asht-i ḥavādis̲ va awz̤āʻ-i tārīkhī dar dū qarn-i avval-i Islām (Two Centuries of Silence) |location=Tihrān |publisher=Sukhan |year=2000 |orig-year=1379 |oclc=46632917}}</ref> the majority of Iranians were [[Sunni Islam|Sunni Muslims]] until the [[Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam|Safavids forcefully converted Iran to Shia Islam]] in the 18th century. |
Revision as of 12:05, 22 May 2024
The Muslim conquest of Persia, also called the Muslim conquest of Iran, the Arab conquest of Persia, or the Arab conquest of Iran,[2] was a major military campaign undertaken by the Rashidun Caliphate between 632 and 654. As part of the early Muslim conquests, which had begun under Muhammad in 622, it led to the fall of the Sasanian Empire and the eventual decline of Zoroastrianism, which had been predominant throughout Persia as the nation's official religion. The persecution of Zoroastrians by the early Muslims during and after this conflict prompted many of them to flee eastward to India, where they were granted refuge by various kings.
While Arabia was experiencing the rise of Islam in the 7th century, Persia was struggling with unprecedented levels of political, social, economic, and military weakness; the Sasanian army had greatly exhausted itself in the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628. Following the execution of Sasanian shah Khosrow II in 628, Persia's internal political stability began deteriorating at a rapid pace. Subsequently, ten new royal claimants were enthroned within the next four years.[3] Shortly afterwards, Persia was further devastated by the Sasanian Interregnum, a large-scale civil war that began in 628 and resulted in the government's decentralization by 632.
Amidst Persia's turmoil, the first Rashidun invasion of Sasanian territory took place in 633, when the Rashidun army conquered parts of Asoristan, which was the Sasanians' political and economic centre in Mesopotamia.[4] Later, the regional Rashidun army commander Khalid ibn al-Walid was transferred to oversee the Muslim conquest of the Levant, and as the Rashidun army became increasingly focused on the Byzantine Empire, the newly conquered Mesopotamian territories were retaken by the Sasanian army. The second Rashidun invasion began in 636, under Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, when a key victory at the Battle of al-Qadisiyyah permanently ended all Sasanian control to the west of modern-day Iran. For the next six years, the Zagros Mountains, a natural barrier, marked the political boundary between the Rashidun Caliphate and the Sasanian Empire. In 642, Umar ibn al-Khattab, eight years into his reign as Islam's second caliph, ordered a full-scale invasion of the rest of the Sasanian Empire. Directing the war from the city of Medina in Arabia, Umar's quick conquest of Persia in a series of coordinated and multi-pronged attacks became his greatest triumph, contributing to his reputation as a great military and political strategist.[3] In 644, however, he was assassinated by the Persian craftsman Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz, who had been captured by Rashidun troops and brought to Arabia as a slave.
Some Iranian historians have defended their forebears by using Arab sources to illustrate that "contrary to the claims of some historians, Iranians, in fact, fought long and hard against the invading Arabs."[5] By 651, most of the urban centres in Iranian lands, with the notable exception of the provinces along the Caspian Sea (i.e., in Tabaristan and Transoxiana), had come under Muslim domination. Many localities fought against the invaders; although the Rashidun army had established hegemony over most of the country, many cities rose in rebellion by killing their Arab governors or attacking their garrisons. Eventually, military reinforcements quashed the Iranian insurgencies and imposed complete control. The Islamization of Iran was gradual and incentivized in various ways over a period of centuries, though some Iranians never converted and there were widespread cases of Zoroastrian scriptures being burnt and Zoroastrian priests being executed, particularly in areas that experienced violent resistance.[6] Islam had become Iran's predominant religion by the Late Middle Ages;[7][8] the majority of Iranians were Sunni Muslims until the Safavids forcefully converted Iran to Shia Islam in the 18th century.
- ^ Pourshariati 2008, pp. 469.
- ^ "ʿARAB ii. Arab conquest of Iran". iranicaonline.org. Archived from the original on 26 September 2017. Retrieved 18 January 2012.
- ^ a b The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch: 1 ISBN 978-0-19-597713-4
- ^ Stephen Humphreys, R. (January 1999). Between Memory and Desire. University of California Press. p. 180. ISBN 9780520214118 – via Internet Archive.
- ^ Milani A. Lost Wisdom. 2004 ISBN 978-0-934211-90-1 p.15
- ^ (Balāḏori, Fotuḥ, p. 421; Biruni, Āṯār, p. 35)
- ^ Mohammad Mohammadi Malayeri, Tarikh-i Farhang-i Iran (Iran's Cultural History). 4 volumes. Tehran. 1982.
- ^ ʻAbd al-Ḥusayn Zarrīnʹkūb (2000) [1379]. Dū qarn-i sukūt : sarguz̲asht-i ḥavādis̲ va awz̤āʻ-i tārīkhī dar dū qarn-i avval-i Islām (Two Centuries of Silence). Tihrān: Sukhan. OCLC 46632917.