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The Kaikolars also called as Isai Vellalar and Sengunthar, are a large [[Tamil people|Tamil]] and [[Telugu people|Telugu]] caste of weavers in the states of [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Andhra Pradesh]] in southern India<ref name="http://www.tn.gov.in/bcmbcmw/bclist.htm">http://www.tn.gov.in/bcmbcmw/bclist.htm</ref><ref name="http://ncbc.nic.in/backward-classes/ap.html">http://ncbc.nic.in/backward-classes/ap.html</ref>. There are seventy-two subdivisions (nadu or desams). They consider the different parts of the loom to represent various gods and sages. Most present day Kaikolars are offsprings of Kaikolar Devadasis and men from Brahmin communities <ref name="Book: Of Property and Propriety: The Role of Gender and Class in Imperialism and Nationalism - Page 178 by Bannerji, Himani, Mojab, Shahrzad, Whitehead, Judith">Book: Of Property and Propriety: The Role of Gender and Class in Imperialism and Nationalism - Page 178 by Bannerji, Himani, Mojab, Shahrzad, Whitehead, Judith</ref>.
The Kaikolars also called as Isai Vellalar and Sengunthar, are a large [[Tamil people|Tamil]] and [[Telugu people|Telugu]] caste of weavers in the states of [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Andhra Pradesh]] in southern India<ref name="http://www.tn.gov.in/bcmbcmw/bclist.htm">http://www.tn.gov.in/bcmbcmw/bclist.htm</ref><ref name="http://ncbc.nic.in/backward-classes/ap.html">http://ncbc.nic.in/backward-classes/ap.html</ref>. There are seventy-two subdivisions (nadu or desams). They consider the different parts of the loom to represent various gods and sages. Most present day Kaikolars are offsprings of Kaikolar Devadasis and men from Brahmin communities <ref name="Book: Of Property and Propriety: The Role of Gender and Class in Imperialism and Nationalism - Page 178 by Bannerji, Himani, Mojab, Shahrzad, Whitehead, Judith">Book: Of Property and Propriety: The Role of Gender and Class in Imperialism and Nationalism - Page 178 by Bannerji, Himani, Mojab, Shahrzad, Whitehead, Judith</ref>.

''Some Marriage Customs in Southern India:Deformity and Mutilation, Uralis, Sholagas and Irulas by Thurston.The girl chosen is taken to the temple where a sword is placed beside her with a tali (marriage badge) under it. The tali is then tied round her neck by any woman present and she returns to her own house where she is permitted to carry on any amours she chooses. <ref name="Some Marriage Customs in Southern India:Deformity and Mutilation, Uralis, Sholagas and Irulas by Thurston.E">Some Marriage Customs in Southern India:Deformity and Mutilation, Uralis, Sholagas and Irulas by Thurston.E</ref>

Isai Vellalar are none other than that section of Sengunthar Mudaliars or Kaikolars who were associated with the system of Devadasis<ref name="Union Territory of Pondicherry By Francis Cyril Antony, Pondicherry (India : Union Territory)">Union Territory of Pondicherry By Francis Cyril Antony, Pondicherry (India : Union Territory)</ref>. Kaikkolars have very close ties of kinship with ''[[Devadasi]]s'' (meaning servant of god in [[sanskrit]]) <ref name="The Erotic Sculptures of India Y. Krishan, Artibus Asiae, Vol. 34, No. 4 (1972), pp. 331-343">The Erotic Sculptures of India Y. Krishan Artibus Asiae, Vol. 34, No. 4 (1972), pp. 331-343, http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0004-3648(1972)34%3A4%3C331%3ATESOI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-2</ref><ref name="Artisans in Vijayanagar Society, Vijaya Ramaswamy, Indian Economic & Social History Review, Vol. 22, No. 4, 417-444 (1985), http://ier.sagepub.com/cgi/content/citation/22/4/417">Artisans in Vijayanagar Society, Vijaya Ramaswamy, Indian Economic & Social History Review, Vol. 22, No. 4, 417-444 (1985), http://ier.sagepub.com/cgi/content/citation/22/4/417, register here for free->http://www.sagepublications.com/sjofreeaccess/ </ref>. Traditionally, one girl in every family was set apart to be dedicated to temple service and becomes a ''[[Devadasi]]''(meaning female servant of god).<ref name="Contending identities: Sacred prostitution and reform in colonial South India Priyadarshini Vijaisri A1, A1 Centre for the Study of Developing Societies (CSDS), New Delhi, South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies Publisher: Routledge, part of the Taylor & Francis Group Issue: Volume 28, Number 3 / December 2005 Pages: 387 - 411. http://journalsonline.tandf.co.uk/link.asp?id=jv31l27518262711">Contending identities: Sacred prostitution and reform in colonial South India Priyadarshini Vijaisri A1, A1 Centre for the Study of Developing Societies (CSDS), New Delhi, South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies Publisher: Routledge, part of the Taylor & Francis Group Issue: Volume 28, Number 3 / December 2005 Pages: 387 - 411. http://journalsonline.tandf.co.uk/link.asp?id=jv31l27518262711</ref><ref name="Donors, Devotees, and Daughters of God. Temple Women in Medieval Tamilnadu by Leslie C. Orr">Donors, Devotees, and Daughters of God. Temple Women in Medieval Tamilnadu by Leslie C. Orr</ref><ref name="Artisans in Vijayanagar Society, Vijaya Ramaswamy, Indian Economic & Social History Review, Vol. 22, No. 4, 417-444 (1985)">Artisans in Vijayanagar Society, Vijaya Ramaswamy, Indian Economic & Social History Review, Vol. 22, No. 4, 417-444 (1985)</ref>

In present day, the regular Kaikolars have renamed themselves as Sengunthars and the Kaikolar Devadasis have renamed themselves as Isai Vellalar in order to evade detection and for the purpose of social upliftment in the society <ref name="Union Territory of Pondicherry By Francis Cyril Antony, Pondicherry (India : Union Territory)">Union Territory of Pondicherry By Francis Cyril Antony, Pondicherry (India : Union Territory)</ref>. This is similar to Pallars renaming themselves as Devendra Kula Vellalars and claiming to be Vellalars and the descendants of the Pallavas.{{Fact|date=June 2007}}

Another reference book ''Donors, Devotees, and Daughters of God. Temple Women in Medieval Tamilnadu by Leslie C. Orr.'' gives ample references to inscriptions regarding the Kaikkolars being Devadasis in Tanjore temples during the Chola empire. This research article explains how ''Kaikola women still go into sacred prostitution''<ref name="Contending identities: Sacred prostitution and reform in colonial South India Priyadarshini Vijaisri A1, A1 Centre for the Study of Developing Societies (CSDS), New Delhi, South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies Publisher: Routledge, part of the Taylor & Francis Group Issue: Volume 28, Number 3 / December 2005 Pages: 387 - 411. http://journalsonline.tandf.co.uk/link.asp?id=jv31l27518262711">Contending identities: Sacred prostitution and reform in colonial South India Priyadarshini Vijaisri A1, A1 Centre for the Study of Developing Societies (CSDS), New Delhi, South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies Publisher: Routledge, part of the Taylor & Francis Group Issue: Volume 28, Number 3 / December 2005 Pages: 387 - 411. http://journalsonline.tandf.co.uk/link.asp?id=jv31l27518262711</ref>. Another research article explains the blood relation between the Devadasis and the Kaikolar. (Quoted from article: ''"Devaradiyar (dancing girls who have very close kinship ties with the Kaikkolar"'') <ref name="Artisans in Vijayanagar Society, Vijaya Ramaswamy, Indian Economic & Social History Review, Vol. 22, No. 4, 417-444 (1985), http://ier.sagepub.com/cgi/content/citation/22/4/417">Artisans in Vijayanagar Society, Vijaya Ramaswamy, Indian Economic & Social History Review, Vol. 22, No. 4, 417-444 (1985), http://ier.sagepub.com/cgi/content/citation/22/4/417</ref> The Kaikkolars used their women to enjoy special privileges in the Vijayanagar empire<ref name="Weaver Folk Traditions as a Source of History, Vijaya Ramaswamy, Indian Economic & Social History Review, Vol. 19, No. 1, 47-62 (1982), http://ier.sagepub.com/cgi/content/citation/19/1/47?ck=nck">Weaver Folk Traditions as a Source of History, Vijaya Ramaswamy, Indian Economic & Social History Review, Vol. 19, No. 1, 47-62 (1982), http://ier.sagepub.com/cgi/content/citation/19/1/47?ck=nck</ref>. (Text Quoted from article: ''At least one woman in every Kaikkola household was, according to age-old tradition dedicated to the temple as a devaradiyar or devadasi. The devaradiyar enjoyed special privileges in the days of the Vijayanagar empire and were the only women permitted a direct audience with the king''<ref name="Weaver Folk Traditions as a Source of History, Vijaya Ramaswamy, Indian Economic & Social History Review, Vol. 19, No. 1, 47-62 (1982), http://ier.sagepub.com/cgi/content/citation/19/1/47?ck=nck">Weaver Folk Traditions as a Source of History, Vijaya Ramaswamy, Indian Economic & Social History Review, Vol. 19, No. 1, 47-62 (1982), http://ier.sagepub.com/cgi/content/citation/19/1/47?ck=nck</ref>


=== Nanjil Mudali===
=== Nanjil Mudali===

Revision as of 13:44, 13 February 2008

Mudaliar also Mudaliyār, Mudali and Moodley in Tamil language literally means a person of first rank in a feudal society[1] in south India.

According to Vijaya Ramaswamy in[2] mudali in the 13th century referred to a title and not specific castes.

Due to the process called "sankritization"(every caste takes up the habits and customs of its immediate superior to reach the superior status..) many of Kallars, Maravars and agamudaya thevars became Vellalars . This process started in the Pallav period.[3]

However, in recent times the Mudaliar surname is widely used by people belonging to various castes originally from Tamil Nadu, India and in the Tamil diaspora across the world. Most Mudaliars are Tamil people with Tamil as their mother tongue.

Origin

In ancient times, cultivation in South India was spread by force, people would move into virgin land which was used by tribal people for slash and burn agriculture or for hunting and convert it into prime agricultural land. These raids were organized and carried out by chieftains, feudal lords and agricultural landlords called Vellalars.[4][5][6] Vellalars are agricultural landlords and inhabitants of the "marutha nilam" (one of the five lands advocated by the Sangam literature).

Mudaliar, like Pillai is a title conferred upon prominent Vellalar chieftains and feudal lords by the King depending upon the Tamil Kingdom. More specifically, the Vellalars of Thondaimandalam or the Pallava Kingdom were given the title Mudaliar, while the Vellalars of Pandya and Chola Kingdoms were given the title Pillai.[4][5]

The Chola King, Karikala Chola collected the whole of the Mudali tribe of Vellalars and settled them in Tondaimandalam[7]. The country was divided into 24 territorial domains called kottams, a reference to kurumbar policies for administrative purposes. The spatialization of the vellalas in the villages of the Tondai country had begun long before the British arrived.[1][8][9]

This is further confirmed from another source The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago by V. Kanakasabhai in which the author describes the settlement of Tondaimandalam by the Chola King Karikala the Great who divided the Tondaimandalam country into 24 Kottams or districts and parcelled it out to families of the Vellala tribe[10](A complete list of the 24 Kottams and the 79 nadus can also be found in the same source).

Origin of Vellalars and other castes

During cultural diversification, the Vellalars of TamilNadu can be classified into layers. The first layer consists of Saiva Vellalars (Saiva Vellala Mudaliars and Pillais). They are strict vegetarians, literate and sophisticated like Brahmins but do not perform priestly duties. They were major landlords, feudal lords and powerful like Rajputs and Thakurs of Northern India. Saiva Vellalars of the Thondaimandalam became the Thondaimandala Mudaliars.

This area includes the present day areas of Chennai, Chingleput, Kanchipuram, Vellore, Cadalore, Arcot, Vadalore, Thrivannamalai[4],[5]

The second layer consists of a number of unique castes, which do not intermarry at all like Pandia Vellalar, (Madurai) Chozhia Vellalar, those who inhabited the areas of Chola (Thichy, Thanjavur, and Pudukottai) and Pandiya mandalams (Madurai, Thuthukudi, Kanyakumari, and Nagerkovil) became the Shoziya Vellar (or "Chola Velar") and Pandiya Vellar respectively. These communities use Mudaliar, udyar, Pillai titles.[4][5]

The Kaikolar also known as Sengunthar, who are predominantly weavers, cloth merchants and were soldiers under chola empire also use Mudali title.

Agamudaiyar, a caste belonging to the Mukkulathor community who generally use Thevar as their surname also use the Mudaliar surname. "Kallarum, Maravarum, Agamudaiyarum mella mella vanthu vellalar anaarkal"- so goes the saying in Tamil.[4]

Various castes using the "Mudaliar" title

A brief description of various castes using the title Mudaliar is given below.

Tondaimandala Kondaikatti Vellalar

Tradition suggests that this group were the first Vellalar groups that were settled in Tondaimandalam by Adondai Chakravarti after overthrowing the Kurumbar sovereignty[11] Adondai Chakravarti is described in various ways: a) as a lieutenant in the Chola empire[12], b) as the son of ancient Chola King Kokkili and a Naga princess, c) as the illegitimate son of Rajendra Kulotunga Chola I and a palace attendant [13], d) son of Karikala Chola [14]. This claim appears blurred due to the ambiguous identity of Adondai Chakravarti and the time of such settlement. There are conflicting sources, some that say, the settlement was in 7th or 8th century AD and others that say that it was much later in 11th or 12th century AD. Nevertheless, this settlement is much later than Karikala Chola's settlement of TondaimandalamCite error: The <ref> tag has too many names (see the help page).. This Vellalar group seems to have been the most successful group during British times. There were many Mirasidars and Zamindars belonging to this group. They are mainly concentrated in Madras and Chingleput district only. Their mother tongue is Tamil.

Tondaimandala Saiva Vellalar

The Tondaimandala Saiva Vellala Mudaliars are forward-caste and are vegetarians. They are the original homogeneous group of Mudaliyars who were settled in Tondaimandalam or Tondai Nadu in South India by Chola King, Karikala Chola[10][1][8][9][15]. Karikala Chola annexed Thondai naadu and gave it to his son Athondai after whom the region is named after. They are feudal lords, major landowners in Thondaimandalam area which includes the present day areas of Chennai, Chengalpet, Kanchipuram, Vellore etc. A significant population of Thondaimandala Saiva Vellala Mudaliars have also migrated to other areas such as Madurai, Tirunelveli etc. Dalawai Ariyanatha Mudaliar who is regarded as the founder of the Poligar system also settled some of them in areas outside of Thondaimandalam. They are endogamous and inter-marriage with other Mudaliars is quite rare. Their mother tongue is Tamil[4] [6] . Some of the Tamils in Ceylon also trace their lineage to this group some of whom had become saints called Nayanars. The book: The Tamils in Early Ceylon By C. Sivaratnam traces some of the Mudaliyars in Ceylon to Thaninayaka Mudaliyar (among other), a rich Saiva Vellala who emigrated to Ceylon from Tondaimandalam[16].

Agamudayar/Arcot/Thuluva Vellala

The Agam udayar actually belong to the Mukkulathor community, which also includes the Kallars and Maravars. These three communities together known as Mukkulathor generally use "Thevar" as their surname. But later the Agam udaiyars (the most upward community among the three) slowly migrated towards the northern part of Tamil Nadu, settled there, changed their caste name to Thuluva Vellala. So in reality Thuluva vellalar is just the renaming of Agam udayar and hence are classified as one by the Tamil Nadu government, India[17]. So intermingling of on a large scale between two distinct communities is very unlikely and has no historical evidence. The Agam udaiyars changed their name to Thuluva Vellala.

As early as 13th century, Agam udayars were using Mudaliar title. This inscription illustrates the accounts of the temple of Rajaraja-Isvaram-Udaiyar at Rajraja-Kulattur in Tiruvindalur-nadu, a subdivision of Rajraja-valanadu were audited by Kayiladamudaiyan alias Solakon-Pallavaraiyar, an agambadi-mudali of Solakon, between the 23rd and 25th [days of Adi]Cite error: The <ref> tag has too many names (see the help page).


Kerala Muthali/Mudali

Kerala Muthali (Mudali) belongs to various Mudaliar communities. They are predominantly found in the areas of Trivandrum and Palghat Districts of Kerala and Kanyakumari District of Tamil Nadu. They migrated to these places starting late 17th Century onwards for various purposes including Agriculture, Coconut Oil extraction, Coir Trade and as Specialized Fighters and Reliable Spies. They were given special preference by Royal Family of Travancore due to their cultural similarity and loyalty. This status resulted in furhter deepening their area of influence with in Travancore. During the British era many families came in to the influence of Christianity and became strong supporters and eventually embraced that religion. Unlike the Tamil Brahmins settled in various places of Kerala, Muthalis/Mudalis engage with marital relationships with Nairs, Chakravar, Sakravar (Kavathi) and those who are converted to Christianity but retaining Mudaliar identity. Kerala Muthalis still keep their separate identity even though they are a micro-minority caste in Kerala. Due to their linguistic and educational backwardness Kerala [1], Tamilnadu [2] and Pondicherry [3] states have categorized them as BCs. Gradually after independence and state reorganization, Kerala Muthalis have completely integrated with the Kerala Culture, but still consider Lord Muruga/Subramanya as their primary god of worship while most of the Kerala Hindus are devotees of Lord Vishnu.

Sri Lankan Mudaliyars

History of Jaffna has at least two or three clans from Thondaimandalam with Mudali surname. Irumarapum Thooya Thaninayaga Mudali from Seyyoor and Mannadukonda Mudali whose clan has been quoted even during famour poet Kambar's time. Please read Vaipava Malai and migration of people from Thondai Nadu to Jaffna and then write about Sri Lankan Mudaliars. It is not a British Phenomenon.

Here is the direct quotation from a part of Kailaya Malai a historical book of Jaffna on the migration into Jaffna from Thondai Nadu. The other clans may come under this section or under Sri Lankan Vellalar section.

The next was the Vellala of the family of him who shed over kamban a shower of gold for the work of Erezhupatu, whose country was Tondainade, who had a widespread name, who used to wear a lotus garland and whose name was Maanadukanda Mudali. He was made to reside at Irupalai. The next was the Vellala of Seyur, who was as wealthy as Indra, and who never deviated from the path of visture. whose garland was of water lilies. Whose fame was great and whose paternal and maternal lines were matchless and pure and whose name was Taninayaga. He was made a chief of Neduntiva.[18]

See Sri Lankan Mudaliyars for the class of Mudaliyars created by the British administrators during 19th century Sri Lanka.

Sengunthar/Kaikolar/Isai Vellalar

See main article at Sengunthar

The Kaikolars also called as Isai Vellalar and Sengunthar, are a large Tamil and Telugu caste of weavers in the states of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh in southern India[17][19]. There are seventy-two subdivisions (nadu or desams). They consider the different parts of the loom to represent various gods and sages. Most present day Kaikolars are offsprings of Kaikolar Devadasis and men from Brahmin communities [20].

Nanjil Mudali

Nanjil Mudali is another group of people who have Mudali surname. They belong to Nanjil nadu in Kanyakumari district. [21]

Mudaliars of Bangalore

Mudaliars constitute a significant percentage of the population in South Bangalore (surrounding Ulsoor Lake, MG Road, High grounds). Many well-known buildings on MG Road & surrounding areas of Infantry Road and Kamaraj Road are still owned by Mudaliars (e.g - Gangaram's, Vimal Chambers). The famous "Attara Kachheri" or the red court house that stands opposite of Vidhana Sauda was built by Rai Bahadur Arcot Narayansamy Mudaliar. Palatial homes surrounding Windsor Manor (5 star hotel) are even today owned & inhabited by affluent Mudaliar families. The Bangalore Exhibition is usually conducted on the RBANMS grounds in Ulsoor which is owned by Rai Bahadur Arcot Narrainswamy Mudaliar trust. The trust has several schools and colleges affiliated to it.

Notable Mudaliars

Saints


Vaayilar Nayanar: One of the 63 Saivite Nayanars

Kings & Lords

Arts

Education

  • Sir. A. Ramaswami Mudaliar: Mayor of Madras(1928-30), Member-Advisor in High Level "War Committee" formed by the British PM Sir. Winson Churchill during the World Wars, Member-Advisor in all the 3 London-Round Table Conferences(1930,'31,'32);Commerce member of the Viceroy's Council;Indian Representative & Leader in U.N.in 1945 and his efforts put India as a Member Nation in the U.N.; Chief of U.N. Finance Committee; Diwan of Mysore(1946-49); Vice Chancellor of University of Kerala(1951-61), Travancore ; Chairman-The Shipping Corporation of India; FOUNDER Chairman & Managing Director of ICICI (1955) -Industrial Credits & Investment Corporation of India.
  • Dr. A. Lakshmanaswami Mudaliar: First Indian principal of the Madras Medical College, Served as Chairman-UNESCO; Vice Chancellor, University of Madras for the Longest Tenure of 27 Yrs; Chairman-W.H.O, Younger Twin Brother of Sir. A.Ramaswami Mudaliar.

Freedom Fighter

Sports

Government

Religion

Underworld

  • Varadharajan Mudaliar: Known as Vardha Bhai; former prominent underworld kingpin of 70s. Tamil movie Nayagan was based on his life story.


References

  1. ^ a b c Irschick, Eugene F. Dialogue and History: Constructing South India, 1795-1895. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994. direct web reference: http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/view?docId=ft038n99hg&brand=eschol
  2. ^ Vijaya Ramaswamy, "Artisans in Vijayanagar Society", Indian Economic & Social History Review, 12 1985; vol. 22: pp. 417 - 444.
  3. ^ Dravid Samskaram Sahyadrisanukkalil-VR.Parameswaran Pillai
  4. ^ a b c d e f Kerala Pillai History as told by Dr. Kanam Sankara Pillai
  5. ^ a b c d Castes & Tribes of South India - ET.Thurston, VII 361
  6. ^ a b Vellalar History
  7. ^ http://books.google.com/books?vid=030r8wCzi070dfHyMo&id=TTQKoe4eXzgC&q=kurumbars+chola&dq=kurumbars+chola&pgis=1
  8. ^ a b Order and Disorder in Colonial South India Eugene F. Irschick Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 23, No. 3 (1989), pp. 459-492,http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0026-749X(1989)23%3A3%3C459%3AOADICS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-B
  9. ^ a b Lionel Place, 1799 East India Company Report, para. 59.
  10. ^ a b The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago By V. Kanakasabhai, http://books.google.com/books?id=BzgYmdwFby4C&pg=PA42&dq=maravar#PPA28,M1 (Page 28)
  11. ^ Religion and Public Culture: encounters and identities in modern South Indi by John Jeya Paul, Keith Edward Yandell,http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0700711015&id=x3GuKnZTGG4C&pg=PA241&lpg=PA241&ots=0mGugDgcw8&dq=adondai+kondaikatti&sig=rvjX3UZKGetOlVMyoGQS0IC4ac0
  12. ^ Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland By Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland,http://books.google.com/books?vid=0o3HpzvAK7y1RHyxOc&id=JLFfVFU1mCoC&pg=PA581&lpg=PA581&dq=adondai+chola#PPA581,M1
  13. ^ Some Contributions of South India to Indian Culture By S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar, http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN8120609999&id=vRcql-QBhRwC&pg=PA394&lpg=PA394&dq=adondai+chola&sig=CUdOfMyvFWr60FUG2jBelSkCQhQ
  14. ^ History of Tirupati: The Tiruvengadam Temple By T. K. T. Viraraghavacharya, http://books.google.com/books?vid=0EAC1QqCYpse1n8eEo&id=VBoaAAAAMAAJ&q=adondai&dq=adondai&pgis=1
  15. ^ The Hindu : Of tilting pillars
  16. ^ The Tamils in Early Ceylon By C. Sivaratnam, http://books.google.com/books?vid=0PrqSaY8TV9DtgCG9v&id=hlocAAAAMAAJ&q=mudaliyar+vellala&dq=mudaliyar+vellala&pgis=1
  17. ^ a b List Of Backward Classes Approved Cite error: The named reference "http://www.tn.gov.in/bcmbcmw/bclist.htm" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  18. ^ noolaham.net
  19. ^ http://ncbc.nic.in/backward-classes/ap.html
  20. ^ Book: Of Property and Propriety: The Role of Gender and Class in Imperialism and Nationalism - Page 178 by Bannerji, Himani, Mojab, Shahrzad, Whitehead, Judith
  21. ^ List of Backward Classes
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