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Quanticize gravity, treating graviton as tachyon.
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However, attempts to extend the Standard Model with gravitons have run into serious theoretical difficulties at high energies (processes with energies close to or above the [[Planck scale]]) because of infinities arising due to quantum effects (in technical terms, gravitation is [[nonrenormalizable]]). Some proposed theories of [[quantum gravity]]<ref>Roger Penrose(1975)"[http://www.gravityresearchfoundation.org/pdf/awarded/1975/penrose.pdf The Non-Linear Graviton]"</ref> (in particular, [[string theory]]) attempt to address this issue. In string theory, gravitons (as well as the other particles) are states of strings rather than point particles, and then the infinities do not appear, while the low-energy behavior can still be approximated by a quantum field theory of point particles. In that case, the description in terms of gravitons serves as a low-energy [[effective theory]].
However, attempts to extend the Standard Model with gravitons have run into serious theoretical difficulties at high energies (processes with energies close to or above the [[Planck scale]]) because of infinities arising due to quantum effects (in technical terms, gravitation is [[nonrenormalizable]]). Some proposed theories of [[quantum gravity]]<ref>Roger Penrose(1975)"[http://www.gravityresearchfoundation.org/pdf/awarded/1975/penrose.pdf The Non-Linear Graviton]"</ref> (in particular, [[string theory]]) attempt to address this issue. In string theory, gravitons (as well as the other particles) are states of strings rather than point particles, and then the infinities do not appear, while the low-energy behavior can still be approximated by a quantum field theory of point particles. In that case, the description in terms of gravitons serves as a low-energy [[effective theory]].

An alternate interpretation suggests since the effects of gravity can escape black holes, they should be treated as [[tachyons]]. In that view gravitons have constant frequency, and a velocity proportionate to their wavelengths. This follows from general relativity, since for large velocity, 1/gamma = iV. In this view gravitons have a large imaginary negative rest mass. Perhaps Planck's mass. From the Lorentz contraction, as aplied to tachyons, they would have lengths similar in magnitude to their wavelength, as view from outside. From within the graviton they would be spheres.


==Gravitons and models of quantum gravity==
==Gravitons and models of quantum gravity==

Revision as of 22:19, 1 December 2009

For other uses, see the hypothetical particle.
Graviton
CompositionElementary particle
FamilyGauge bosonBoson
InteractionsGravity
Statustheoretical
Symbolg, G[1]
AntiparticleSelf
Theorized1930s[2]
The name is attributed to Dmitrii Blokhintsev and F.M. Gal'perin in 1934[3]
Discoveredcurrently hypothetical
Mass0
Mean lifetimeStable
Electric charge0 e
Spin2

In physics, the graviton is a hypothetical elementary particle that mediates the force of gravity in the framework of quantum field theory. If it exists, the graviton must be massless (because the gravitational force has unlimited range) and must have a spin of 2 (because the source of gravity is the stress-energy tensor, which is a second-rank tensor, compared to electromagnetism, the source of which is the four-current, which is a first-rank tensor). To prove the existence of the graviton, physicists must be able to link the particle to the curvature of the space-time continuum and calculate the gravitational force exerted.

Gravitons are postulated because of the great success of the quantum field theory (in particular, the Standard Model) at modeling the behavior of all other forces of nature with similar particles: electromagnetism with the photon, the strong interaction with the gluons, and the weak interaction with the W and Z bosons. In this framework, the gravitational interaction is mediated by gravitons, instead of being described in terms of curved spacetime as in general relativity. In the classical limit, both approaches give identical results, which are required to conform to Newton's law of gravitation.[4][5][6]

However, attempts to extend the Standard Model with gravitons have run into serious theoretical difficulties at high energies (processes with energies close to or above the Planck scale) because of infinities arising due to quantum effects (in technical terms, gravitation is nonrenormalizable). Some proposed theories of quantum gravity[7] (in particular, string theory) attempt to address this issue. In string theory, gravitons (as well as the other particles) are states of strings rather than point particles, and then the infinities do not appear, while the low-energy behavior can still be approximated by a quantum field theory of point particles. In that case, the description in terms of gravitons serves as a low-energy effective theory.

An alternate interpretation suggests since the effects of gravity can escape black holes, they should be treated as tachyons. In that view gravitons have constant frequency, and a velocity proportionate to their wavelengths. This follows from general relativity, since for large velocity, 1/gamma = iV. In this view gravitons have a large imaginary negative rest mass. Perhaps Planck's mass. From the Lorentz contraction, as aplied to tachyons, they would have lengths similar in magnitude to their wavelength, as view from outside. From within the graviton they would be spheres.

Gravitons and models of quantum gravity

When describing graviton interactions, the classical theory (i.e. the tree diagrams) and semiclassical corrections (one-loop diagrams) behave normally, but Feynman diagrams with two (or more) loops lead to ultraviolet divergences; that is, infinite results that cannot be removed because the quantized general relativity is not renormalizable, unlike quantum electrodynamics. In popular terms, the discreteness of quantum theory is not compatible with the smoothness of Einstein's general relativity. These problems, together with some conceptual puzzles, led many physicists to believe that a theory more complete than just general relativity must regulate the behavior near the Planck scale. Superstring theory finally emerged as the most promising solution; it is the only known theory with finite corrections to graviton scattering at all orders.[citation needed]

String theory predicts the existence of gravitons and their well-defined interactions which represents one of its most important triumphs. A graviton in perturbative string theory is a closed string in a very particular low-energy vibrational state. The scattering of gravitons in string theory can also be computed from the correlation functions in conformal field theory, as dictated by the AdS/CFT correspondence, or from Matrix theory.

An interesting feature of gravitons in string theory is that, as closed strings without endpoints, they would not be bound to branes and could move freely between them. If we live on a brane (as hypothesized by some theorists) this "leakage" of gravitons from the brane into higher-dimensional space could explain why gravity is such a weak force, and gravitons from other branes adjacent to our own could provide a potential explanation for dark matter. See brane cosmology for more details.

Experimental observation

Unambiguous detection of individual gravitons, though not prohibited by any fundamental law, is impossible with any physically reasonable detector.[8] The reason is simply the extremely low cross section for the interaction of gravitons with matter. For example, a detector the mass of Jupiter with 100% efficiency, placed in close orbit around a neutron star, would only be expected to observe one graviton every 10 years, even under the most favorable conditions. It would be impossible to discriminate these events from the background of neutrinos, and it would be impossible to shield the neutrinos without the shielding material collapsing into a black hole.[8]

However, experiments to detect gravitational waves, which may be viewed as coherent states of many gravitons, are already underway (e.g. LIGO and VIRGO). Although these experiments cannot detect individual gravitons, they might provide information about certain properties of the graviton. For example, if gravitational waves were observed to propagate slower than c (the speed of light in a vacuum), that would imply that the graviton has mass.[9]

Comparison with other forces

Unlike the force carriers of the other forces, gravitation plays a special role in general relativity in defining the spacetime in which events take place. Because it does not depend on a particular space-time background, general relativity is said to be background independent. In contrast, the Standard Model is not background independent.[10] A theory of quantum gravity is needed in order to reconcile these differences.[11] Whether this theory should be background independent or not is an open question. The answer to this question will determine if gravity plays a special role in the universe.[12]

See also

References

  1. ^ G is often used to avoid confusion with gluons (symbol g)
  2. ^ Rovelli, C. (2000). Notes for a brief history of quantum gravity. 9th Marcel Grossmann Meeting in Roma. p. p.5. arXiv:gr-qc/0006061v3. {{cite conference}}: |page= has extra text (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  3. ^ Blokhintsev, D.I.; Gal'perin, F.M. (1934). "Gipoteza neitrino i zakon sokhraneniya energii (Neutrino hypothesis and conservation of energy)". Pod Znamenem Marxisma (in Russian). 6: pp.147–157. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  4. ^ Feynman, R. P. (1995). Feynman lectures on gravitation. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0201627345. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  5. ^ Zee, A. (2003). Quantum Field Theory in a Nutshell. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01019-6.
  6. ^ Randall, Lisa (2005). Warped Passages: Unraveling the Universe's Hidden Dimensions. Ecco. ISBN 0-06-053108-8.
  7. ^ Roger Penrose(1975)"The Non-Linear Graviton"
  8. ^ a b Rothman, Tony (2006). "Can Gravitons be Detected?". Foundations of Physics. 36 (12): 1801–1825. doi:10.1007/s10701-006-9081-9. Retrieved 2007-07-02. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  9. ^ Will, Clifford M. (1998). "Bounding the mass of the graviton using gravitational-wave observations of inspiralling compact binaries". Physical Review D. 57 (4): 2061–2068. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.57.2061. Retrieved 2007-07-02. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  10. ^ C. Rovelli et al., Background independence in a nutshell, Class.Quant.Grav. 22 (2005) 2971-2990, gr-qc/0408079
  11. ^ Edward Witten, Quantum Background Independence In String Theory, hep-th/9306122
  12. ^ L. Smolin, The case for background independence, hep-th/0507235


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