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The '''Bible Student movement''' is the name adopted by a [[Christian]] [[Restorationism (Christian primitivism)|Restorationist]] movement that emerged from the teachings and ministry of [[Charles Taze Russell]], also known as "Pastor" Russell. Members of the movement have variously referred to themselves as ''[[Bible Students]]'', ''International Bible Students'', ''Associated Bible Students'', or ''Independent Bible Students''.
The '''Bible Student movement''' is the name adopted by a [[Millennialism|Millennialist]]<ref>{{Cite book | last=Crompton | first = Robert | title = Counting the Days to Armageddon | publisher = James Clarke & Co | year = 1996 | location = Cambridge page = 12| isbn = 0227679393}}</ref> [[Christian]] movement that emerged from the teachings and ministry of [[Charles Taze Russell]], also known as "Pastor" Russell. Members of the movement have variously referred to themselves as ''[[Bible Students]]'', ''International Bible Students'', ''Associated Bible Students'', or ''Independent Bible Students''.


A number of schisms developed within the congregations of Bible Students associated with the [[Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania]] between 1909 and 1932.<ref name=pentonpurge>{{harvnb|Penton|1997|pp=43–62}}</ref><ref name=rogerson>{{harvnb|Rogerson|1969|pp=52}}</ref> The most significant split began in January, 1917 after the election of [[Joseph Franklin Rutherford]] as the president of the Society about two months after Russell's death, and Rutherford's subsequent replacement of four directors of the Watch Tower Society.<ref>{{harvnb|Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society|1959|pp=73}}</ref>
A number of schisms developed within the congregations of Bible Students associated with the [[Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania]] between 1909 and 1932.<ref name=pentonpurge>{{harvnb|Penton|1997|pp=43–62}}</ref><ref name=rogerson>{{harvnb|Rogerson|1969|pp=52}}</ref> The most significant split began in January, 1917 after the election of [[Joseph Franklin Rutherford]] as the president of the Society about two months after Russell's death, and Rutherford's subsequent replacement of four directors of the Watch Tower Society.<ref>{{harvnb|Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society|1959|pp=73}}</ref>

Revision as of 22:22, 16 April 2010

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The Bible Student movement is the name adopted by a Millennialist[1] Christian movement that emerged from the teachings and ministry of Charles Taze Russell, also known as "Pastor" Russell. Members of the movement have variously referred to themselves as Bible Students, International Bible Students, Associated Bible Students, or Independent Bible Students.

A number of schisms developed within the congregations of Bible Students associated with the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania between 1909 and 1932.[2][3] The most significant split began in January, 1917 after the election of Joseph Franklin Rutherford as the president of the Society about two months after Russell's death, and Rutherford's subsequent replacement of four directors of the Watch Tower Society.[4]

Thousands of members left in the years following 1925, prompted in part by failed predictions for 1925 and disillusionment with Rutherford's doctrinal changes and his campaign for centralized control of the Bible Student movement.[2] William Schnell, author and former Witness, has claimed that three-quarters of the Bible Students who had been associating in 1921 had left by 1931;[5] in 1934, Rutherford wrote that "of the great multitude that left the world to follow Jesus Christ only a few are now in God's organization".[6]

Several factions formed their own independent religious fellowships, such as the Dawn Bible Students Association (which continues to publish Russell's writings, including the first six volumes of his Bible textbook series, Studies in the Scriptures), the Standfast Movement, the Paul Johnson Movement (later called the Laymen's Home Missionary Movement), the Elijah Voice Movement, the Eagle Society, and the Pastoral Bible Institute of Brooklyn. These groups range from conservative, claiming to be Russell's true followers, to more liberal, claiming that Russell's role is not as important as once believed.[7] Rutherford's faction of the movement retained control of the Watch Tower Society[7] and adopted the name Jehovah's witnesses in 1931.

The current total membership of the various Bible Students groups is unknown; worldwide membership of Jehovah's Witnesses exceeds 7 million.[8]

Foundation

File:Ctr1911.gif
Charles Russell in 1911

In 1869, Russell came in contact with Advent Christian[9] preacher Jonas Wendell[10] (influenced by the Millerites)[11] and began a Bible study group soon after in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He acknowledged[12] the influence of Adventist ministers George Storrs (who had earlier predicted Christ's return in 1844)[11] and George Stetson, and also strongly reflected the teachings of Philadelphia Lutheran pastor Joseph Seiss.[11]

By the mid-1870s Russell had published 50,000 copies of a pamphlet, The Object and Manner of Our Lord's Return[13] presenting his view that Christ would return invisibly before the battle of Armageddon, and in January 1876 met independent Adventist preacher Nelson H. Barbour of Rochester, New York, a former acquaintance of Wendell and the publisher of Herald of the Morning. Barbour, an avid student of Bible chronology, convinced Russell that Christ had returned invisibly in 1874.[11][14][15][16] Russell provided financial backing for Barbour and became co-editor of Barbour's magazine, Herald of the Morning; the pair jointly issued The Three Worlds (1877), written mostly by Barbour.[17][18] The book articulated ideas that remained the teachings of Russell's associates for the next 40 years, many of which are still embraced by Jehovah's Witnesses and most Bible Student groups: they identified a 2520-year period, ending in 1914, which they termed "the Gentile Times". Deviating from most Second Adventists, the book taught that the earth would not be destroyed when Christ returned, and that all humankind since Adam would be resurrected to the earth and given the opportunity for eternal perfect human life. It also revealed an expectation that all of the "saints" would be taken to heaven in April, 1878.[11][19]

Russell broke with Barbour in July, 1879 over the concept of substitutionary atonement and began publishing his own monthly magazine, Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence (now known as The Watchtower), and the pair competed through their rival publications for the minds of their readers.[11][20] Semi-monthly publication of the magazine began in 1892.[21][22]

Russell continued to develop his interpretations of biblical chronology. By 1878 he was teaching the Adventist view that the "end times" had begun in 1799,[23] and that Christ had returned invisibly in 1874[24] and had been crowned in heaven as king in 1878. He believed that 1878 also marked the resurrection of the "sleeping saints" of Revelation 14:13, and the "fall of Babylon", which he considered to refer to God's official judgment that Christendom had proven unfaithful.[25][26] October 1914 was held as the end of a harvest period that would culminate in the beginning of Armageddon, manifested by the emergence of worldwide anarchy and the decline and destruction of civilized society. [27] In early 1881, he predicted that the churches ('Babylon') would begin to fall apart and that the rapture of the saints would take place that year, although they would remain on earth as materialized spirit beings.[11] In 1882, he declared the Trinity doctrine to be false.[11]

Thirty study groups were established in seven states in the U.S. in 1879, and the following year Russell visited the congregations to conduct six-hour study sessions and establish a set pattern for meetings.[11]

Watch Tower Society

In 1881, Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society was formed as an unincorporated administrative agency for the purpose of disseminating tracts, papers, doctrinal treatises and Bibles, with Russell as secretary and William Henry Conley as president.[22] Three years later, on December 15, 1884, Russell became president of the society when it was legally incorporated in Pennsylvania.[28] (The society was renamed Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society in September 1896).[29] Russell wrote many articles, books, pamphlets and sermons, which by his death totaled 50,000 printed pages, with almost 20 million copies of his books printed and distributed around the world.[11] In 1886, he wrote the first of what would become a six-volume Bible textbook series called Millennial Dawn, later renamed Studies in the Scriptures,[30][31] which presented his fundamental doctrines. As a consequence, the Bible Students were sometimes called Millennial Dawnists.

Russell advertised for 1000 preachers in 1881, and encouraged all who were members of "the body of Christ" to preach to their neighbors, to gather the "little flock" of saints while the vast majority of mankind would be given the opportunity to gain salvation during Christ's 1000-year reign.[11] Russel's supporters gathered as autonomous congregations to study the Bible and his writings. Russell rejected the concept of a formal organization as "wholly unnecessary" for his followers and declared that his group had no record of its members' names, no creeds, and no sectarian name.[32] He wrote in February 1884: "By whatsoever names men may call us, it matters not to us ... we call ourselves simply Christians."[33] Elders and deacons were elected by congregations and Russell tolerated a great latitude of belief among members. He opposed formal disciplinary procedures by congregation elders, claiming this was beyond their authority[34] instead recommending that an individual who continued in a wrong course be judged by the entire congregation, which could ultimately "withdraw from him its fellowship" if the undesirable behavior continued.[35] Disfellowshipping did not mean the wrongdoer was to be shunned in all social circumstances or by all Bible Students, though fellowship would be limited.[36] From 1895, Russell encouraged congregations to study his Bible textbook series, Studies in the Scriptures, paragraph by paragraph to properly discern God's plan for humanity. In 1905 he recommended replacing verse-by-verse Bible studies with what he called "Berean Studies" of topics he chose.[11]

The Watch Tower Society opened overseas branches in London (1900),[37] Germany (1903) and Australia and Switzerland (1904).[38] The Society's headquarters were transferred to Brooklyn, New York in 1909.[39]

From January 1914, the Bible Students began public showings of the The Photo-Drama of Creation,[40] a presentation synchronizing motion pictures with phonograph records containing recorded talks and music. The presentation covered the history of the Bible; worldwide attendance that year alone exceeded nine million. It was the first major screenplay to incorporate synchronized sound, moving film, and color slides.[41][42]

International Bible Students Association

In 1910, Russell introduced the name International Bible Students Association as a means of identifying his worldwide community of Bible study groups. He wrote:

"Now in the Lord's providence we have thought of a title suitable, we believe, to the Lord's people everywhere, and free from objection, we believe, on every score – the title at the head of this article (IBSA). It fairly represents our sentiments and endeavors. We are Bible students. We welcome all of God's people to join with us in the study. We believe that the result of such studies is blessed and unifying. We recommend therefore that the little classes everywhere and the larger ones adopt this unobjectionable style and that they use it in the advertising columns of their newspapers. Thus friends everywhere will know how to recognize them when visiting strange cities."[43]

Russell explained that the association would be directed and managed by the Peoples Pulpit Association, which, in turn, represented the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society. All Bible Student classes using Watch Tower Society publications could consider themselves identified with the Association and were authorized to use the name International Bible Students' Association in connection with their meetings. The name was also used when advertising and conducting conventions of Russell's followers.

Formative influences

In addition to Russell, early figures and influences included:

First schism

In 1905 Paul S. L. Johnson, one of the traveling "Pilgrim" speakers and a former Lutheran minister, pointed out to Russell that his doctrines on the New Covenant had undergone a complete reversal: until 1880 he had taught that the New Covenant would be inaugurated only after the last of the 144,000 anointed Christians had been taken to heaven,[44] but since 1881 he had written that it was already in force.[45][46] Russell reconsidered the question and in January 1907 wrote several Watch Tower articles reaffirming his 1880 position—that "the new covenant belongs exclusively to the coming age"[47]—adding that the church had no mediator, but that Christ was the "advocate". He also taught that Christians making up the 144,000 would join Christ as a "joint heir" and assistant mediator during the millennium.[48] Several prominent Bible Students vigorously opposed the new teaching. On October 24, 1909 former Watch Tower Society secretary-treasurer E.C. Henninges, who was by then the Australian branch manager based in Melbourne, wrote Russell an open letter of protest trying to persuade him to abandon the teaching, and calling on Bible Students to examine its legitimacy. When Russell refused, Henninges and most of the Melbourne congregation left Russell's movement to form the New Covenant Fellowship. Hundreds of the estimated 10,000 U.S. Bible Students also left, including pilgrim M. L. McPhail, a member of the Chicago Bible Students, and A. E. Williamson of Brooklyn, forming the New Covenant Believers.[46][49] The group, which informally referred to members as Free Bible Students, published The Kingdom Scribe magazine until 1975. The group is currently known as the Berean Bible Students Church.[50]

Leadership crisis

Russell died on October 31, 1916, in Pampa, Texas during a cross-country preaching trip. On January 6, 1917, Rutherford, aged 47, was elected president of the Watch Tower Society, unopposed, at a convention in Pittsburgh. Controversy soon followed. Author Tony Wills claims that nominations were suspended once Rutherford had been nominated, preventing votes for other candidates,[51][52] and within months Rutherford felt the need to defend himself against rumors within the Brooklyn Bethel that he had used "political methods" to secure his election. In the first of a series of pamphlets from opposing sides, Rutherford told Bible Students: "There is no person on earth who can truthfully say that I ever asked them directly or indirectly to vote for me."[53]

By June, the dispute surrounding Rutherford's election as president was turning into what he called a "storm"[54] that ruptured the Watch Tower Society for the remainder of 1917. In January of that year following Russell's death,[55] Paul Johnson was sent to England with orders to inspect the management and finances of the Watch Tower Society's London corporation.[56] He dismissed two managers of the corporation, seized its funds and attempted to reorganize the body. When Rutherford—who was convinced Johnson was insane and suffering religious delusions—ordered his recall to New York in late February, Johnson refused and claimed he was answerable only to the full board of directors.[57] When he finally returned to New York and apologized to the Bethel family for his excesses in London,[58] Johnson became caught up in a move against Rutherford by four of the seven Watch Tower Society directors.

Joseph F. Rutherford
Joseph F. Rutherford

At issue were new by-laws that had been passed in January by both the Pittsburgh convention and the board of directors, stating that the president would be the executive officer and general manager of the Watch Tower Society, giving him full charge of its affairs worldwide.[59] Opinions on the need for the by-laws were sharply divided. Rutherford maintained that Russell, as president, had always acted as the society's manager, and that the January 6 vote by shareholders to approve the by-laws proved they wanted this process to continue under his successor.[60] He claimed it was a matter of efficiency and said the work of the Watch Tower Society "peculiarly requires the direction of one mind".[61] Bible Student Francis McGee, a lawyer and an assistant to the New Jersey Attorney-General, responded: "This is then the crux of the matter. He says he is that one mind."[62] By June, four board members—Robert H. Hirsch, Alfred I. Ritchie, Isaac F. Hoskins and James D. Wright—had decided they had erred in endorsing Rutherford's powers of management.[63] They claimed Rutherford had become autocratic, refusing to open the Watch Tower Society's books for scrutiny and denying Johnson a fair hearing over his actions in London.[63]

At a board meeting on June 20, Hirsch presented a resolution to rescind the new by-laws and reclaim the powers of management from the president,[64] but a vote was deferred for a month after strenuous objections by Rutherford.[65] A week later, four of the directors requested an immediate board meeting to seek information on the society's finances. Rutherford refused the meeting, later claiming he had by then detected a conspiracy between Johnson and the four directors with the aim of seizing control of the society, as he believed Johnson had attempted in Britain.[66]

Within weeks, Rutherford gained a legal opinion from a Philadelphia corporation lawyer that a clause of the Watch Tower Society charter stipulating that its directors were elected for life was contrary to Pennsylvania law, and that all directors were required by law to be re-elected annually. The legal opinion stated that because the January 6 shareholders' meeting had elected only three men to office—Rutherford, Secretary-Treasurer Van Amburgh and Vice-President Andrew N. Pierson—the remaining four board members, who had joined as early as 1904 and had not faced re-election, had no legal status as directors of the society. Even Hirsch, who had been appointed by the board on March 29, 1917 following the resignation of Henry C. Rockwell, was said to have no legal standing because his appointment had taken place in New York rather than Allegheny, as required by law. Rutherford claimed to have known these facts since 1909 and to have conveyed them to Russell on more than one occasion.[67]

On July 12, Rutherford traveled to Pittsburgh and exercised his right under the society's charter to fill what he claimed were four vacancies on the board, appointing A. H. Macmillan and Pennsylvania Bible Students W. E. Spill, J. A. Bohnet and George H. Fisher as directors.[68] Rutherford called a meeting of the new board on July 17, where the directors passed a resolution expressing "hearty approval" of the actions of their president and affirming him as "the man the Lord has chosen to carry on the work that yet remains to be done."[69] On July 31 he called a meeting of the People's Pulpit Association, a Watch Tower Society subsidiary incorporated in New York, to expel Hirsch and Hoskins as directors on the grounds that they were opposing the work of the Association. When the resolution failed to gain a majority, Rutherford exercised shareholder proxies provided for at the annual meeting in New York the previous January to secure their expulsion.[70][71] On August 1 the Watch Tower Society published a 24-page journal, Harvest Siftings, subtitled "The evil one again attempts to disrupt the Society", in which Rutherford stated his version of the events and explained why he had appointed the new board members.

A month later the four ousted directors responded with a self-funded rebuttal of Rutherford's statement. The publication, Light After Darkness, contained a letter by Pierson, dated July 26, in which the vice-president declared he was now siding with the old board. Although he believed both sides of the conflict had displayed "a measure of wrongs", Pierson had decided Rutherford and been wrong to appoint new directors.[72] The ousted directors' publication also disputed the legality of their expulsion, stating that the clause in the Pennsylvania law prohibiting life memberships on boards had been only recently introduced and was not retroactive, exempting existing corporations from the statute.[73][74] They claimed that the Watch Tower Society's charter only allowed for directors to be elected as officers, contending that Rutherford, Van Amburgh and Pierson, who also were not directors in January, could not have been elected as officers either. Their advice from several lawyers, they said, was that Rutherford's course was "wholly unlawful".[73][75]

The ex-directors' publication claimed Rutherford had required all Bethel workers to sign a petition supporting him and condemning the former directors, with the threat of dismissal for any who refused to sign.[76] Some workers complained that they had signed under duress; it was claimed that as many as 35 members of the Bethel family were forced to leave for failing to support Rutherford during his "reign of terror".[58][77][78] Rutherford denied anyone had been forced out for refusing to sign the letter.[79] Despite attempts by Pierson to reconcile the two groups,[79] the former directors left the Brooklyn headquarters on August 8.[80]

Rutherford's re-election and aftermath

Pamphlets published by opposing sides during the dispute over Rutherford's leadership, 1917.

Publications continued through late 1917, with Rutherford on one side and Johnson and the four expelled directors on the other, each accusing their opponents of gross misrepresentation and trying to usurp authority.[81][82][83] The controversy fractured the harmony of the Bible Student movement and many congregations split into opposing groups loyal to either Rutherford or those he had expelled.[80][84]

The four expelled board members made a final attempt to unseat Rutherford, claiming that although he had the backing of the most powerful shareholders, he lacked the support of the Bible Student movement in general. They therefore called for a democratic vote from all the Bible Students.[85] Rutherford wrote in October, "I did not seek election to the office of President, and I am not seeking re-election. The Lord is able to attend to his own business."[86] Then in December 1918, he out-maneuvered his opponents, organizing a referendum of all Bible Students and Watch Tower subscribers, a month before the annual Pittsburgh convention. Although not binding, votes were counted in more than 800 U.S. congregations, giving Rutherford 95 percent of the vote for president. His opposers ranked 10th, 11th, 12th and 13th on the list of prospective directors, with the highest support given to Rutherford's existing six co-directors.[85] On January 5, 1918, Rutherford was returned to office, receiving 194,106 shareholders' votes. Hirsh received 23,198 votes—the highest among the ex-directors—putting him in 10th place. A resolution was promptly passed to request that Hirsch resign from the editorial committee.[87]

Rutherford stated at the convention that he was aware he had made many mistakes.[87] By mid-1919, about one in seven Bible Students had left rather than accept his leadership,[88] and as many as seventy-five percent by 1928, resulting in the formation of various Bible Student groups such as the Standfast Movement, the Layman's Home Missionary Movement, the Dawn Bible Students Association, the Pastoral Bible Institute, the Elijah Voice Movement, and the Eagle Society.[89]

Associated Bible Students

Main article: Associated Bible Students

Bible Students congregations which hold to the writings and views of Russell casually refer to themselves under the generic title "Associated Bible Students". All congregations are autonomous, and may not necessarily have contact with other congregations though many do. The Dawn Bible Students collectively form the largest segment of the Bible Student movement that separated from the Watch Tower Society.[citation needed]

Congregations, referred to as "ecclesias", do not operate under any central leadership, though members of the most well-established Bible Students congregations are well connected through family and religious ties.[citation needed] Each ecclesia elects its own elders and deacons.[citation needed] Many ecclesias sponsor yearly conventions,[citation needed] which consist of Bible discourses, panel discussions, vesper services, and testimony meetings.[citation needed] These conventions are each hosted by a local elder, and served by three to six elders who travel from their home ecclesias (mainly in the United States or Canada) after having accepted an invitation to serve.[citation needed] The general public is invited, but the majority in attendance are Bible Students from surrounding areas, or those who have traveled from abroad;[citation needed] attendance is usually between one and two hundred.[citation needed] The yearly Indiana-Ohio convention (known as I-O), the Dawn General Convention (held in July), the Chicago Bible Student's New Year's and Memorial Day conventions, and the International Convention (held biennially in Europe in August) have the largest overall attendances, often in the thousands.[citation needed]

Pastoral Bible Institute

In 1918, the former directors held the first Bible Student Convention independent of the Watch Tower Society. At the second convention a few months later, the informal Pastoral Bible Institute was founded. They began publishing The Herald of Christ’s Kingdom, edited by R. E. Streeter. Although publication of the magazine continues [2], the Pastoral Bible Institute is essentially defunct, with only an editorial committee publishing the magazine..[90]

Berean Bible Institute

The Australian Berean Bible Institute (BBI) formally separated from the Watch Tower Society in 1918. They published The Voice and the People's Paper magazine. Offshoot congregations of the BBI still exist, but the number of all Bible Students in Australia is estimated at less than 100.[90]

StandFast Bible Students Association

In December 1918, Charles E. Heard and some others considered Rutherford's indifference regarding the purchase of war bonds to be a perversion of Russell's pacifist teachings,[91] and contrary to scripture.[92][93] As a result, they founded the StandFast Bible Students Association in Portland, Oregon. The name originated from their decision to "stand fast" on principles involving war that Russell had espoused. Membership dwindled and the group was eventually disbanded. A splinter group known as the Elijah Voice Society, was founded by John A. Herdersen and C. D. McCray in 1923. They were especially noted for their preaching and pacifist activity.[citation needed]

Dawn Bible Students Association

Main article: Dawn Bible Students Association
See also: Frank and Ernest (broadcast)

In 1928, Norman Woodworth, cousin of C. J. Woodworth, left the Watch Tower Society after having been in charge of their radio ministry. Woodworth created an independent Bible Studens radio program called Frank and Ernest.[94] Funding was provided with the help of the Brooklyn congregation of Bible Students and continued to broadcast into the 1980s. In 1929 the station sponsored the First Annual Reunion Convention of Bible Students at the old Bible House used by Russell in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

In 1931 Woodworth (and others) founded the Dawn Bible Students Association to resume publication of Studies in the Scriptures, which the Watch Tower Society had officially ceased publishing in 1927. The Dawn Bible Students began publication of a leaflet, The Bible Students Radio Echo, to follow up interest in the radio program; the leafelt was soon developed into a 16-page magazine and renamed The Dawn—A Herald of Christ’s Presence, which they continue to publish, along with radio, television, and Internet radio programs.[94]

Free Bible Students

Main article: Free Bible Students

New Covenant Believers

In 1909, M. L. McPhail, a traveling elder ("Pilgrim") and member of the Chicago Bible Students, disassociated from Russell's movement when controversy arose over Russell's expanded view of the application and timing of the "New Covenant" mentioned by Jeremiah, and led the New Covenant Bible Students in the United States, founding the New Covenant Believers in that year. The group, which informally referred to members as Free Bible Students, published The Kingdom Scribe magazine until 1975. The group still exists under the name Berean Bible Students Church.[50]

Christian Millennial Fellowship

In 1928 the Italian Bible Students Association[clarification needed] in Hartford, Connecticut withdrew its support from the Watch Tower Society and changed its name to the Millennial Bible Students Church, and eventually to Christian Millennial Fellowship, Inc. They came to reject many of Russell's writings as erroneous. The group is now located in New Jersey and call themselves "Free Bible Students", and published The New Creation magazine since 1940.[50]

Independent Bible Students

Over the past thirty-five years, controversy has surrounded the Dawn as their publishing and editorial committee began to promote more-liberal points of view, distancing themselves from some of Russell's viewpoints, alienating many Bible Students as a result.[citation needed] In 1974, a group of Bible Students meeting at a convention in Fort Collins, Colorado formally ceased their spiritual fellowship with, and financial support of, the Dawn Bible Students Association. They refer to themselves as "Independent Bible Students". The split was not intended to eliminate or restrict personal fellowship, but was viewed as a 'stand for the truth' by ceasing sponsorship of elders associated with the Dawn, and avoiding attendance at conventions held by congregations that supported the Dawn. In recent years, attempts have been made to reintegrate the groups. The Independent Bible Students began publishing The Bible Students Newsletter, a monthly non-doctrinal magazine.[citation needed]

Jehovah's Witnesses

Main article: Jehovah's Witnesses

Bible Students who submitted to Rutherford's leadership of the Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society became known as Jehovah's witnesses in 1931. The Watch Tower Society continues to be the religion's primary administrative body, and their beliefs and organizational structure have diverged considerably from Russell's, to which most Bible Student groups still adhere.[95] Their literature claims that the term Bible Students is synonymous with Jehovah's Witnesses[96] and does not acknowledge the continued existence of other Bible Student groups.

Laymen's Home Missionary Movement

Main article: Laymen's Home Missionary Movement

Paul S. L. Johnson founded the Laymen's Home Missionary Movement in 1919. Johnson's death in 1950 lead to an internal disagreement over his role as a teacher chosen by God, and resulted in the formation of splinter group of their own, such as the Epiphany Bible Students Association, and the Laodicean Home Missionary Movement. Johnson believed he had been appointed by God as Russell's official spiritual successor, that he was the last member of the 144,000 of Revelation 7, and that hope of a heavenly reward of immortality for the Christian faithful would cease after his death. His associate and successor, Raymond Jolly, taught that he himself was the last member of the "great multitude", also of Revelation 7. After Jolly's death, remaining members of the fellowship believed they would live on a perfected earth in God's kingdom as a group referred to as the "modern worthies"—associates of the "ancient worthies", the ancient Jewish prophets God would resurrect to guide and instruct the world in his kingdom.[citation needed]

Other groups

See also: Friends of Man

In 1917 Alexandre F. L. Freytag, manager of the branch office of the Watch Tower Society in Switzerland since 1898, founded the Angel of Jehovah Bible and Tract Society (also known as the Philanthropic Assembly of the Friends of Man and The Church of the Kingdom of God). He was ousted from the Watch Tower Society by Rutherford in 1919 when he began publishing his own personal views. He published two journals, the monthly The Monitor of the Reign of Justice and the weekly Paper for All.

Jesse Hemery was a prominent member of the Bible Students in England, and was appointed overseer of the Watch Tower Society's British Isles branch office by Russell in 1901,[97] holding that post until 1946.[citation needed] In 1951 he was disfellowshipped by N.H. Knorr[citation needed] and then founded the Goshen Fellowship. The group is currently led by Frank Lewis Brown.

See also

References

  1. ^ Crompton, Robert (1996). Counting the Days to Armageddon. Cambridge page = 12: James Clarke & Co. ISBN 0227679393. {{cite book}}: Missing pipe in: |location= (help)CS1 maint: location (link)
  2. ^ a b Penton 1997, pp. 43–62
  3. ^ Rogerson 1969, pp. 52
  4. ^ Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1959, pp. 73
  5. ^ Thirty Years a Watchtower Slave, William J. Schnell, Baker, Grand Rapids, 1956, as cited by Rogerson, page 52. Rogerson notes that it is not clear exactly how many Bible Students left.
  6. ^ Jehovah, J.F.Rutherford, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1934, page 277.
  7. ^ a b Rogerson
  8. ^ "Membership and Publishing Statistics", Authorized Site of the Office of Public Information of Jehovah's Witnesses, As retrieved 2009-08-10
  9. ^ Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1993, pp. 43. These were also known as "Second Adventists."
  10. ^ Pages 35-36 of Jonas Wendell's treatise The Present Truth or Meat in Due Season pointed to 1873 for the time of Christ's visible return.
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Penton 1997, pp. 13–46
  12. ^ Watch Tower, 1906, as cited by James Penton, page 17
  13. ^ According to the Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society this was published in 1873; according to James Penton, as late as 1877.
  14. ^ Barbour had originally predicted a visible return of Christ for 1873, but when that failed to eventuate, he concluded that Christ had returned invisibly in 1874 based on a reference in Benjamin Wilson's Emphatic Diaglott. See Evidences for the Coming of the Lord in 1873: or the Midnight Cry, N.H. Barbour (1871). Available online at: http://www.heraldmag.org/olb/contents/history/barbour%20midnight%20cry.htm accessed February 20, 2006
  15. ^ The Midnight Cry and Herald of the Morning, March 1874. See Section under "Our Faith."
  16. ^ Russell explains how he accepted the idea of an invisible return of Christ in 1874 from N.H. Barbour in "Harvest Gatherings and Siftings" in the July 15, 1906 Watch Tower, Reprints page 3822.
  17. ^ Though the book bore the names of both men as authors, James Penton (Apocalypse Delayed) points out that in early issues of the Watch Tower, Russell repeatedly referred to Barbour as its author. In the July 15, 1906 Watch Tower Russell said it was "mostly written by Mr Barbour". See Watch Tower reprint.
  18. ^ The Three Worlds and The Harvest of This World by N.H. Barbour and C.T. Russell (1877). Text available online at: http://www.heraldmag.org/olb/contents/history/3worlds.pdf accessed March 15, 2006
  19. ^ The Three Worlds, pp. 184-185
  20. ^ Russell explained his side of the break with Barbour in the first issue of the Watch Tower.
  21. ^ Online copies of the Watch Tower from 1879-1916 can be viewed by issue at: http://www.mostholyfaith.com/bible/Reprints/index.asp or by article at: http://www.agsconsulting.com/htdbv5/links.htm. These are taken from the 7 volume Watch Tower Reprints published by the Watch Tower Society in 1920 which reprinted all the issues from 1879-1919.
  22. ^ a b "Modern History of Jehovah’s Witnesses", Watchtower, January 15, 1955, page 14.
  23. ^ "The 'Time of the End,' a period of one hundred and fifteen (115) years, from A.D. 1799 to A.D. 1914, is particularly marked in the Scriptures." Thy Kingdom Come, 1890, p. 23.
  24. ^ Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1993, pp. 631–632
  25. ^ Thy Kingdom Come (1890), Volume 3 of Studies in the Scriptures, pp. 305-308.
  26. ^ "This spuing out, or casting off, of the nominal church as an organization in 1878, we then understood, and still proclaim, to be the date of the commencement of Babylon's fall..."—"The Consummation of Our Hope" in Zion's Watch Tower, April 1883. Reprints pp. 474-5.
  27. ^ "Things to Come--And The Present European Situation" in The Watch Tower, January 15, 1892, Reprints, p. 1355
  28. ^ Holden, A. (2002) Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement. (p.18)
  29. ^ Pierson et al 1917, pp. 22
  30. ^ Yearbook 1975, Watch Tower Society, 1975.
  31. ^ The titles of the six volumes are: 1) The Divine Plan of the Ages, 2)The Time is At Hand, 3)Thy Kingdom Come, 4)The Battle of Armageddon, 5)The At-one-ment Between God and Man, 6)The New Creation
  32. ^ Raymond Franz, "In Search of Christian Freedom", Commentary Press, 2007, chapter 4
  33. ^ Watch Tower, February 1984, reprinted at [1] and cited by Franz, "In Search of Christian Freedom", chapter 4.
  34. ^ What Pastor Russell Said, Leslie W. Jones, 1917, pg 346, as cited by Penton, 1997, pg 31, "The Lord's word does not authorize any court of Elders, or anyone else, to become busybodies. This would be going back to the practices of the Dark Ages during the Inquisition and we would be showing the same spirit as did the inquisitors."
  35. ^ Russell directed that an unrepentant person be judged by the entire ecclesia, rather than the elders. He directed that the ecclesia not make the wrongdoer's faults public. See Charles T. Russell, The New Creation Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1904, pages 289-290}
  36. ^ Apocalypse Delayed, James Penton, page 31.
  37. ^ Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1959, page 32.
  38. ^ "The First One a Hundred Years Ago", Awake, December 22, 2000.
  39. ^ "Organized Testimony to the New World", Watchtower, July 15, 1950, page 215.
  40. ^ Slides and film from the Photo-Drama can be viewed online at: http://www.agsconsulting.com/pdoc/menu.htm; the book is available online at: http://www.heraldmag.org/olb/contents/russell/Drama.pdf
  41. ^ IMDB article "Photo-Drama of Creation (1914), IMDB article "Trivia", Retrieved 2009-04-15
  42. ^ American Movie Classics, "Timeline of Influential Milestones...1910s", Retrieved 2009-04-15
  43. ^ Watchtower, April 1910.
  44. ^ "The Three Great Covenants", Zion's Watch Tower, March 1880.
  45. ^ "The New Covenant vs the Law Covenant", Zion's Watch Tower, September 1887.
  46. ^ a b Wills, Tony (2006). A People For His Name. Lulu Enterprises. pp. 63–68. ISBN 9781430301004.
  47. ^ "The Mediator of the New Covernant", Zion's Watch Tower, January 1, 1907, pages 9, 10.
  48. ^ "The Word Mediator Used Differently,", Watch Tower, January 1909.
  49. ^ Penton 1997, pp. 42
  50. ^ a b c Who are the Free Bible Students and what is their history?
  51. ^ Wills 2007, pp. 115
  52. ^ An essay at the Pastoral Bible Institute website claims Macmillan chaired the meeting; Rutherford in Harvest Siftings II (pg 26) refers to Ritchie as the chairman.
  53. ^ Rutherford & August 1917, pp. 10.
  54. ^ Rutherford & October 1917, pp. 28
  55. ^ Rutherford & October 1917, pp. 31
  56. ^ Johnson 1917, pp. 2, 3
  57. ^ Rogerson 1969, pp. 35, 36
  58. ^ a b Pierson et al 1917, pp. 15
  59. ^ Pierson et al 1917, pp. 5, 6
  60. ^ Rutherford & October 1917, pp. 31
  61. ^ Rutherford & August 1917, pp. 10
  62. ^ Pierson et al 1917, pp. 19
  63. ^ a b Pierson et al 1917, pp. 4
  64. ^ Rutherford & August 1917, pp. 12
  65. ^ Pierson et al 1917, pp. 6
  66. ^ Rutherford & August 1917, pp. 22–23
  67. ^ Rutherford & August 1917, pp. 15
  68. ^ Rutherford & August 1917, pp. 14, 15
  69. ^ Rutherford & August 1917, pp. 1, 17
  70. ^ Pierson et al 1917, pp. 10
  71. ^ Rutherford & October 1917, pp. 27, 28
  72. ^ Pierson et al 1917, pp. 8, 9
  73. ^ a b Pierson et al 1917, pp. 7
  74. ^ Wills, 2007 & 95
  75. ^ Legal opinion, Davies, Auerbach & Cornell, New York, July 23, 1917.
  76. ^ Pierson et al 1917, pp. 9
  77. ^ Rogerson 1969, pp. 37
  78. ^ Johnson 1917, pp. 17, 18
  79. ^ a b Rutherford & October 1917, pp. 29
  80. ^ a b Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1993, pp. 68
  81. ^ Pierson et al 1917, pp. 1
  82. ^ Rutherford & October 1917, pp. 1
  83. ^ Johnson 1917, pp. 9
  84. ^ Watch Tower publications since 1917 have vilified those who opposed Rutherford and make no attempt to convey their version of events. In its account of the events of 1917, the 1993 Proclaimers of God's Kingdom book refers to the opposing camps as "those loyal to the Society and those who were easy prey to the smooth talk of the opposers" (pg. 68). The 1975 Yearbook (pg. 87) dismisses the four ousted directors as "rebellious individuals who claimed to be board members" (pg. 92) and men who "ambitiously sought to gain administrative control of the Society". The 1959 history book Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose also incorrectly claims the legal advice given to the ousted directors confirmed that given to Rutherford. Their own journal, Light After Darkness, makes it plain their legal advice disagreed with Rutherford's.
  85. ^ a b Rogerson 1969, pp. 38
  86. ^ Rutherford & October 1917, pp. 32
  87. ^ a b Rogerson 1969, pp. 39
  88. ^ Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1975, pp. 93–94
  89. ^ Rogerson 1969, pp. 39
  90. ^ a b Daughters of the Tower Cite error: The named reference "biblestudents.net" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  91. ^ 1975 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, page 119
  92. ^ Watch Tower, March 1, 1919:"'The International Bible Students’ Association is not against the Liberty Loan.; in Watch Tower, June 1, 1919 Rutherford indicated regret about making any comment on the matter.
  93. ^ "Could Not Talk of Loan", The New York Times, April 29, 1918, As Retrieved 2010-03-02, "Rutherford, the President, sa[id] that the buying of bonds was not a religious question, and that the [IBSA] association did not oppose the purchase of Liberty bonds by the members"
  94. ^ a b Frank and Ernest Cite error: The named reference "dawnbible.com" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  95. ^ Whalen, William J. (1962). Armageddon Around the Corner: A Report on Jehovah's Witnesses. New York: John Day Company. pp. 207–209.
  96. ^ "Right Choices Led to Lifelong Blessings". The Watchtower: 12. 1 January 2007. One of the Bible Students, as Jehovah's Witnesses were then known
  97. ^ 1973 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, page 92, "The British Isles"

Bibliography

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