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The belief is a minority view, although it has appeared throughout [[History of Christianity|Christian history]].<ref>[[L. E. Froom]], The Condionalist Faith of our Fathers (Washington, DC: Review and Herald, 1965-1966).</ref> And is now almost a common view among conservative theologians.<ref>[http://www.theologicalstudies.org.uk/article_universalism_bauckham.html [[Richard Bauckham]] ''Universalism: a historical survey'' Themelios 4.2 (September 1978): 47-54.] "Here and there, outside the theological mainstream, were some who believed that the wicked would be finally annihilated (in its commonest form. this is the doctrine of 'conditional immortality')." "Since 1800 this situation has entirely changed, and no traditional Christian doctrine has been so widely abandoned as that of eternal punishment.3 Its advocates among theologians today must be fewer than ever before. The alternative interpretation of hell as annihilation seems to have prevailed even among many of the more conservative theologians."</ref>
The belief is a minority view, although it has appeared throughout [[History of Christianity|Christian history]].<ref>[[L. E. Froom]], The Condionalist Faith of our Fathers (Washington, DC: Review and Herald, 1965-1966).</ref> And is now almost a common view among conservative theologians.<ref>[http://www.theologicalstudies.org.uk/article_universalism_bauckham.html [[Richard Bauckham]] ''Universalism: a historical survey'' Themelios 4.2 (September 1978): 47-54.] "Here and there, outside the theological mainstream, were some who believed that the wicked would be finally annihilated (in its commonest form. this is the doctrine of 'conditional immortality')." "Since 1800 this situation has entirely changed, and no traditional Christian doctrine has been so widely abandoned as that of eternal punishment.3 Its advocates among theologians today must be fewer than ever before. The alternative interpretation of hell as annihilation seems to have prevailed even among many of the more conservative theologians."</ref>


It experienced a resurgence in the 1980s when several prominent theologians including [[John Stott]] defended it publicly. Earlier in the 20th century, some theologians at the [[University of Cambridge]] including [[Basil Atkinson]] supported the belief. 20th century English theologians who favour annihilation include Bishop [[Charles Gore]] (1916),<ref>Gore, ''The Religion of the Church'' Oxford: Mowbray, 1916, pp. 91f.</ref> [[William Temple, 98th Archbishop of Canterbury]] (1924);<ref>Temple, W., ''Christus Veritas'' London: Macmillan, 1924, p. 209</ref> [[Oliver Chase Quick]], Chaplain to the Archbishop of Canterbury (1933),<ref>Quick O.C., ''Doctrines of the Creed'' London: Nisbet, 1933, pp. 257f.</ref> [[Ulrich Ernst Simon]] (1964),<ref>Simon U., ''The End is Not Yet'' Welwyn: Nisbet, 1964, pp. 206f.</ref> [[G. B. Caird]] (1966),<ref>Caird G. B., ''The Revelation of St John the Divine'' London: A. and C. Black., 1966, pp. 186f., 260</ref> [[John Wenham]] (1974),<ref>Wenham J. ''The Goodness of God'' London: IVP, 1974, ch. 2 (leaves the issue open between everlasting punishment and annihilation).</ref> [[Clark Pinnock]], [[Michael Green (theologian)|Michael Green]], and [[Philip Edgecumbe Hughes]].
It experienced a resurgence in the 1980s when several prominent theologians including [[John Stott]]<ref>Edwards, D. L. & Stott, J. <i>Essentials : a liberal-evangelical dialogue</i> London : Hodder & Stoughton, 1988, pp. 313-320.</ref> defended it publicly. Earlier in the 20th century, some theologians at the [[University of Cambridge]] including [[Basil Atkinson]] supported the belief. 20th century English theologians who favour annihilation include Bishop [[Charles Gore]] (1916),<ref>Gore, ''The Religion of the Church'' Oxford: Mowbray, 1916, pp. 91f.</ref> [[William Temple, 98th Archbishop of Canterbury]] (1924);<ref>Temple, W., ''Christus Veritas'' London: Macmillan, 1924, p. 209</ref> [[Oliver Chase Quick]], Chaplain to the Archbishop of Canterbury (1933),<ref>Quick O.C., ''Doctrines of the Creed'' London: Nisbet, 1933, pp. 257f.</ref> [[Ulrich Ernst Simon]] (1964),<ref>Simon U., ''The End is Not Yet'' Welwyn: Nisbet, 1964, pp. 206f.</ref> [[G. B. Caird]] (1966),<ref>Caird G. B., ''The Revelation of St John the Divine'' London: A. and C. Black., 1966, pp. 186f., 260</ref> [[John Wenham]] (1974),<ref>Wenham J. ''The Goodness of God'' London: IVP, 1974, ch. 2 (leaves the issue open between everlasting punishment and annihilation).</ref> [[Clark Pinnock]], [[Michael Green (theologian)|Michael Green]], and [[Philip Edgecumbe Hughes]].


Christian denominations which are annihilationist were influenced by the [[Millerism|Millerite]]/[[Adventism|Adventist]] movement of the mid-19th century. These include the [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventists]], [[Bible Students]], [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], [[Christadelphians]] and the various [[Advent Christian Church|Advent Christian]] churches. Additionally, the [[Church of England]]'s Doctrine Commission reported in 1995 that "[h]ell is not eternal torment", but "non-being". Some [[Protestant]] and [[Anglican]] writers have also proposed annihilationist doctrines.
Christian denominations which are annihilationist were influenced by the [[Millerism|Millerite]]/[[Adventism|Adventist]] movement of the mid-19th century. These include the [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventists]], [[Bible Students]], [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], [[Christadelphians]] and the various [[Advent Christian Church|Advent Christian]] churches. Additionally, the [[Church of England]]'s Doctrine Commission reported in 1995 that "[h]ell is not eternal torment", but "non-being". Some [[Protestant]] and [[Anglican]] writers have also proposed annihilationist doctrines.

Revision as of 00:58, 7 October 2010

In Christianity, annihilationism is the belief that sinners are destroyed, rather than tormented forever in "hell" as in the lake of fire. It is directly related to the doctrine of conditional immortality, the idea that a human soul is not immortal unless it is given eternal life. Annihilationism asserts that God will eventually destroy or annihilate the wicked, leaving only the righteous to live on in immortality. Some annihilationists believe the wicked will be punished for their sins in the lake of fire before being annihilated, others that hell is a false doctrine of pagan origin. It stands in contrast to the "traditional view" of eternal torment, and the view that everyone will be saved (universal reconciliation or simply "universalism").

The belief is a minority view, although it has appeared throughout Christian history.[1] And is now almost a common view among conservative theologians.[2]

It experienced a resurgence in the 1980s when several prominent theologians including John Stott[3] defended it publicly. Earlier in the 20th century, some theologians at the University of Cambridge including Basil Atkinson supported the belief. 20th century English theologians who favour annihilation include Bishop Charles Gore (1916),[4] William Temple, 98th Archbishop of Canterbury (1924);[5] Oliver Chase Quick, Chaplain to the Archbishop of Canterbury (1933),[6] Ulrich Ernst Simon (1964),[7] G. B. Caird (1966),[8] John Wenham (1974),[9] Clark Pinnock, Michael Green, and Philip Edgecumbe Hughes.

Christian denominations which are annihilationist were influenced by the Millerite/Adventist movement of the mid-19th century. These include the Seventh-day Adventists, Bible Students, Jehovah's Witnesses, Christadelphians and the various Advent Christian churches. Additionally, the Church of England's Doctrine Commission reported in 1995 that "[h]ell is not eternal torment", but "non-being". Some Protestant and Anglican writers have also proposed annihilationist doctrines.

Annihilationists base the doctrine on their exegesis of Scripture, some early church writing, historical criticism of the doctrine of hell, and the concept of God as too loving to punish his creations forever. They claim that the popular conceptions of hell stem from Jewish speculation during the intertestamental period,[10] belief in an immortal soul which originated in Greek philosophy and influenced Christianity, and also graphic and imaginative medieval art and poetry.

History

Bible references

Those who support annihilationism generally refer to New Testament texts such as Matthew 10:28 where Christ speaks of the wicked being destroyed "both body and soul" in fiery hell and to Old Testament texts such as Ezekiel 18:4 saying that "the soul that sins shall die". Their view of the afterlife generally appeals to New Testament references such as John 11:11 "our friend Lazarus has fallen asleep" and 1Thessalonians 4:15 "we shall not precede those who have fallen asleep". In this view mankind is mortal and the soul is in a dormant state having no concept of the passing of time when the body dies. According to this view, the dead in Christ are awaiting the resurrection of the dead mentioned by Paul in 1 Corinthians 15. The ancient Hebrews, according to some modern scholars, had no concept of the eternal soul. The afterlife was simply sheol, the abode of the dead, a bleak end to existence akin to the Greek hades.

Those who oppose annihilationism generally refer to the New Testament, especially the story of Lazarus and Dives. By the time of Christ, the Jews largely believed in a future resurrection of the dead. They portrayed the wicked as suffering in sheol while awaiting the resurrection. Some annihilationists take these references to portray the temporary suffering of those who will be destroyed. The Greek text of Luke 16:23 states that Dives was suffering in Hades (en to hade), where however he could see Abraham and Lazarus and converse with Abraham.

Church fathers and later

The vast majority of Christian writers, from Tertullian to Luther, have held to traditional notions of hell. However, the annihilationist position is not without some historical warrant. Early forms of conditional immortality can be found in the writings of Ignatius of Antioch[11] (d. 108), Justin Martyr[12] (d. 165), and Irenaeus[13] (d. 202). However, Arnobius (d. 330) is often recognized as the first to defend annihilationism explicitly. One quote in particular stands out in Arnobius' second book of Against the Heathen:

Your interests are in jeopardy,-the salvation, I mean, of your souls; and unless you give yourselves to seek to know the Supreme God, a cruel death awaits you when freed from the bonds of body, not bringing sudden annihilation, but destroying by the bitterness of its grievous and long-protracted punishment.[14]

Additionally, at least one of John Wesley's recorded sermons are often reluctantly understood as implying annihilationism. Contrarily, the denominations of Methodism which arose through his influence typically do not agree with annihilationism.[15]

Millerite and Adventist movement

Recently the doctrine has been most often associated with groups descended from or with influences from the Millerite movement of the mid-19th century. These include the Seventh-day Adventist Church, Bible Students, Jehovah's Witnesses, Christadelphians, followers of Herbert Armstrong, and the various Advent Christian churches. (The Millerite movement consisted of 50,000 to 100,000 people in the United States who eagerly expected the soon return of Jesus, and originated around William Miller).

George Storrs introduced the belief to the Millerites. He had been a Methodist minister and antislavery advocate. He was introduced to the view when in 1837 he read a pamphlet by Henry Grew. He published tracts in 1841 and 1842 arguing for conditionalism and annihilation.[16] He became a Millerite, and started the Bible Examiner in 1843 to promote these views.[17] However most leaders of the movement rejected these beliefs, other than Charles Fitch who accepted conditionalism.[18] Still, in 1844 the movement officially decided these issues were not essential points of belief.[19]

The Millerites expected Jesus to return around 1843 or 1844, based on Bible texts including Daniel 8:14, and one Hebrew Calendar. When the most expected date of Jesus' return (October 22, 1844) passed uneventfully, the "Great Disappointment" resulted. Followers met in 1845 to discuss the future direction of the movement, and were henceforth known as "Adventists". However they split on the issues of conditionalism and annihilation. The dominant group, which published the Advent Herald, adopted the traditional position of the immortal soul, and became the American Evangelical Adventist Conference. On the other hand, groups behind the Bible Advocate and Second Advent Watchman adopted conditionalism. Later, the main advocate of conditionalism became the World's Crisis publication, which started in the early 1850s, and played a key part in the origin of the Advent Christian Church. Storrs came to believe the wicked would never be resurrected. He and like-minded others formed the Life and Advent Union in 1863.[19]

Seventh-day Adventist Church

The Seventh-day Adventist Church formed from a small group of Millerite Adventists who kept the Seventh-day Sabbath, and today forms the most prominent "Adventist" group.

Ellen G. White rejected the immortal soul concept in 1843. Her husband James White, along with Joseph Bates, formerly belonged to the conditionalist Christian Connection, and hinted at this belief in early publications. Together, the three constitute the primary founders of the church.

Articles appeared in the primary magazine of the movement in the 1850s, and two books were published.[20] The view was apparently established by the middle of that decade.[19] (In the 1860s, the group adopted the name "Seventh-day Adventist" and organized more formally.) D. M. Canright and Uriah Smith produced later books.[19][21]

A publication with noticeable impact in the wider Christian world was The Conditionalist Faith of our Fathers (2 vols, 1965–1966) by Le Roy Froom.[22] It has been described as "a classic defense of conditionalism" by Clark Pinnock.[23][24] It is a lengthy historical work, documenting the supporters throughout history.

Robert Brinsmead, an Australian and former Seventh-day Adventist best known for his Present Truth Magazine, originally sponsored Edward Fudge to write The Fire that Consumes.[25]

Samuele Bacchiocchi, best known for his study From Sabbath to Sunday, has defended annihilation.[26] Pinnock wrote the foreword.

The Seventh-day Adventist Church's official beliefs support annihilation,[27] as do other important publications.[28]

Jehovah's Witnesses

Others

1900s onwards

Annihilationism seems to be gaining as a legitimate minority opinion within modern, conservative Protestant theology since the 1960s, and particularly since the 1980s. It has found support and acceptance among some British evangelicals, although viewed with greater suspicion by their American counterparts. Recently, a handful of evangelical theologians, including the prominent evangelical Anglican author John Stott, have offered at least tentative support for the doctrine, touching off a heated debate within mainstream evangelical Christianity.[29]

The subject really gained attention in the late 1980s, from publications by two evangelical Anglicans, John Stott and Philip Hughes.[30] Stott advocated the view in the 1988 book Essentials: A Liberal-Evangelical Dialogue with liberal David Edwards, the first time he publicly did so.[31] However 5 years later he said he had held this view for around fifty years.[32] Stott wrote, "Well, emotionally, I find the concept intolerable and do not understand how people can live with it without either cauterising their feelings or cracking under the strain."[33] Yet he considers emotions unreliable, and affords supreme authority to the Bible.[34] Stott supports annihilation, yet cautions, "I do not dogmatise about the position to which I have come. I hold it tentatively... I believe that the ultimate annihilation of the wicked should at least be accepted as a legitimate, biblically founded alternative to their eternal conscious torment."[35] Philip Hughes published The True Image in 1989, which has been called "[o]ne of the most significant books" in the debate.[25] A portion deals with this issue in particular.[36]

John Wenham's 1974 book The Goodness of God contained a chapter which challenged the traditional view, and was the first book from an evangelical publishing house to do so.[25][37] It was republished later as The Enigma of Evil.[38] He contributed a chapter on conditionalism in the 1992 book Universalism and the Doctrine of Hell.[39] He later published Facing Hell: An Autobiography 1913–1996, which explores the doctrine through an autobiographical approach.[40] His interest in the topic stemmed from the 1930s as a student at the University of Cambridge, where he was influenced by Basil Atkinson. (Wenham is best known for his The Elements of New Testament Greek, which has been a standard textbook for students). He wrote:

"I feel that the time has come when I must declare my mind honestly. I believe that endless torment is a hideous and unscriptural doctrine which has been a terrible burden on the mind of the church for many centuries and a terrible blot on her presentation of the gospel. I should indeed be happy if, before I die, I could help in sweeping it away. Most of all I should rejoice to see a number of theologians . . . joining ... in researching this great topic with all its ramifications."[41]

The Fire that Consumes was published in 1982 by Edward Fudge of the Churches of Christ.[42] It was described as "the best book" by Clark Pinnock, as of a decade later.[43] John Gerstner called it "the ablest critique of hell by a believer in the inspiration of the Bible."[44] Clark Pinnock of McMaster Divinity College has defended annihilation.[45] Earlier, Atkinson had self-published the book Life and Immortality.[46] Theologians from Cambridge have been influential in supporting the annihilationist position, particularly Atkinson.[47]

The view is also held by some liberal Christians within mainstream denominations.

There have been individual supporters earlier. Pentecostal healing evangelist William Branham promoted annihilationism in the last few years before his death in 1965.[48]

The Church of England's Doctrine Commission reported in February 1995 that Hell is not eternal torment. The report, entitled "The Mystery of Salvation" states, "Christians have professed appalling theologies which made God into a sadistic monster. ... Hell is not eternal torment, but it is the final and irrevocable choosing of that which is opposed to God so completely and so absolutely that the only end is total non-being."[49] The British Evangelical Alliance ACUTE report (published in 2000) states the doctrine is a "significant minority evangelical view" that has "grown within evangelicalism in recent years".[50]

Several evangelical reactions to the view were published.[51] Another critique was by Paul Helm in 1989.[52] In 1990, J. I. Packer delivered several lectures supporting the traditional view. The reluctance of many evangelicals is illustrated by the fact that proponents have had trouble publishing their views with evangelical publishing houses, with Wenham's 1973 book being the first.[25][30]

Some well respected authors have remained neutral. F. F. Bruce wrote, "annihilation is certainly an acceptable interpretation of the relevant New Testament passages ... For myself, I remain agnostic. Eternal conscious torment is incompatible with the revealed character of God."[53] Comparatively, C. S. Lewis did not systematize his own views.[54] He rejected traditional pictures of the "tortures" of hell, as in The Great Divorce where he pictured it as a drab "grey town". Yet in The Problem of Pain, "Lewis sounds much like an annihilationist."[55] He wrote:

"But I notice that Our Lord, while stressing the terror of hell with unsparing severity usually emphasises the idea not of duration but of finality. Consignment to the destroying fire is usually treated as the end of the story—not as the beginning of a new story. That the lost soul is eternally fixed in its diabolical attitude we cannot doubt: but whether this eternal fixity implies endless duration—or duration at all—we cannot say."[56]

The 'Catechism of the Catholic Church' (1992) describes hell as 'eternal death' (para 1861) and elsewhere states that 'the chief punishment of hell is that of eternal separation from God' (para 1035). What does 'eternal' mean in this context? St Thomas Aquinas, following Boethius, states that 'eternity is the full, perfect and simultaneous possession of unending life' (Summa Theologica I, question 10), so apparently eternal separation from God is a 'negative eternity', a complete and permanent separation from God. In the Collect (opening prayer) for the eighth Sunday after Pentecost in the Tridentine missal, we find the words 'qui sine te esse non possumus', meaning 'we who without Thee cannot be (or exist)'. Putting these two citations together would seem to suggest annihilationism, which, however, is certainly not explicitly approved in Catholic teaching.

It is interesting to note that the Collect mentioned above found its way into the Anglican prayer-book, as the collect for the ninth Sunday after Trinity, but mistranslated so that it reads 'we who cannot do anything that is good without Thee'. Perhaps the Anglican translators (in the 16th century) feared that a correct translation of the Latin text might undermine the doctrine of everlasting torment in hell. The Collect does not appear at all in the modern Roman Sunday Missal. But it is an ancient prayer that has been used regularly in the Roman rite for many centuries.

Conditional immortality

The doctrine is often, although not always, bound up with the notion of "conditional immortality", a belief that the soul is not innately immortal. They are related yet distinct.[57] At death, both the wicked and righteous will pass into non-existence, only to be resurrected (or more precisely re-created) at the final judgment. God, who alone is immortal, passes on the gift of immortality to the righteous, who will live forever in heaven or on an idyllic earth, while the wicked will ultimately face a second death.[citation needed]

Those who believe in this doctrine may not like to use "annihilationist" to define themselves. In his book The Fire that Consumes, Edward Fudge coined the term "conditionalist." Moreover, he limits "annihilationism" to refer to that subset of people who believe that the wicked do not rise to face the final judgment. In this sense, the term would refer to Jehovah's Witnesses, but not to Seventh-day Adventists and other conditionalist Evangelicals.[citation needed]

Justifications

Different understanding of Scripture

Annihilationists point out why would God choose the words like "destroy, destruction, perish, death" to signify something other than their plain meaning? They do not deny the existence of hell, but that what occurs there is "eventual" death of the soul, (it perishes) not being in eternal existence.[dubiousdiscuss] Adventists, and perhaps others, understand the term "hell" to refer to the process of destruction, not as a geographical location nor permanently existing process.

  • Psalm 92:7 ...................shall be "destroyed" forever....
  • Psalm 1: 6 ....................be the way of the ungodly shall "perish"
  • Matthew 10:28 ..............rather fear him which is able to "destroy" both soul and body in hell
  • John 3:16 .....................whosoever believeth in him should not perish (Greek: destroyed)
  • Romans 6:23 ................For the wages of sin is "death"…
  • James 4:12 ....................There is one lawgiver, who is able to save and to "destroy"
  • Philippians 3:19 .............Whose end is "destruction"
  • 2 Thessalonians 1:9 ........Who shall be punished with everlasting "destruction"
  • Hebrews 10:39 ...............But we are not of them who draw back unto perdition (Greek: destruction); but of them that believe to the saving of the soul
  • Revelation 20:14 ..............This is the second death.

Annihilationists understand there will be suffering in the death process, but ultimately the wages of sin is death, not eternal existence. Many affirm that Jesus taught limited conscience physical sufferings upon the guilty:

  • "That servant who knows his master's will and does not get ready or does not do what his master wants will be beaten with many blows. But the one who does not know and does things deserving punishment will be beaten with few blows. (Luke 12:47-48)

The adjectives "many" and "few" in Luke 12 could not be used if eternal conscious torment was what Jesus was teaching. He would have used "heavier" and "lighter" if the duration of conscience sufferings were eternal because when the "few" stripes were over there could be no more suffering. By very definition "few" and "many" declare not unlimited (or eternal) sufferings.

Annihilationists declare eternal existence and life is a gift gotten only from believing the gospel; (John 3:16) Paul calls this gift (immortality) an integral part of the gospel message. "...who hath abolished death, and hath brought life and 'immortality' to light through the gospel." (2 Timothy 1:10). If all souls are born immortal, then why is humanity encouraged to seek it by Paul? "To them who by patient continuance in well doing 'seek' for glory and honour and immortality, eternal life:" (Romans 2:7) And also, why would Jesus offer humanity an opportunity to "live forever", if all live forever? …"if any man eat of this bread, he shall live forever:" (John 6:51).

The foundation of the annihilationist view is based on passages that speak of the unsaved as perishing (John 3:16) or being destroyed (Matthew 10:28). Annihilationists believe that verses speaking of the second death refer to ceasing to exist. Opponents of this view argue that the second death is the spiritual death (separation from God) that occurs after physical death (separation of soul and body). Annihilationists are quick to point out that spiritual death happens the moment one sins and that it is illogical to believe further separation from God can take place. In addition, annihilationists claim that complete separation from God conflicts the doctrine of omnipresence in which God is present everywhere, including hell. Some annihilationists accept the position that hell is a separation from God by taking the position that God sustains the life of his creations: when separated from God, one simply ceases to exist.

Opponents of annihilationism often argue that ceasing to exist is not eternal punishment and therefore conflicts with passages such as Matthew 25:46: "And these shall go away into everlasting punishment but the righteous into eternal life." This argument uses a definition of the word "punishment" that must include some form of suffering. However, in common usage, punishment might be described as "an authorized imposition of deprivations -- of freedom or privacy or other goods to which the person otherwise has a right, or the imposition of special burdens -- because the person has been found guilty of some criminal violation, typically (though not invariably) involving harm to the innocent" (according to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). By this definition, annihilationism is a form of punishment in which deprivation of existence occurs, and the punishment is eternal.

We may note that the 'Catechism of the Catholic Church' (1992), para. 1472, states that 'grave sin deprives us of communion with God, and therefore makes us incapable of eternal life, the privation of which is called the 'eternal punishment' of sin.'

Cited texts

  • Genesis 3:19 We came from dust and to dust we will return.
  • Psalms 146:4 Our thoughts/plans perish and spirit departs upon death.
  • Ezekiel 18:20 The soul who sins is the one who will die.
  • Jeremiah 19:5 Jeremiah 32:35 Burning one's offspring in the Valley of Ben Hinnom (which is where concept of Gehenna or Hell comes from) is NOT a commandment of God nor did it even enter His Mind.
  • Matthew 10:28 Both body and soul are destroyed in hell. "And fear not them which kill the body, but are not able to kill the soul: but rather fear him which is able to destroy both soul and body in hell."
  • John 3:16 People who don't believe in Jesus shall perish and not receive eternal life.
  • John 6:51 Jesus offer... to "live forever" would make no sense apart from the fact that not all will live or exist forever.
  • 2Thessalonians 1:9 Everlasting destruction is having been destroyed and having no way to undo that.
  • Revelation 21:8 The wicked will suffer a second death, the death of the soul.
  • Romans 6:23 For the wages of sin is death.
  • 1Corinthians 15:12–49 Only those who belong to Christ will be raised with imperishable, immortal bodies, all others perish as a man of dust.

John Wenham has classified the New Testament texts on the fate of the lost:

  • 10 texts (4%) "Gehenna"
  • 26 (10%) to "burning up"
  • 59 (22%) to "destruction, perdition, utter loss or ruin"
  • 20 (8%) to "separation from God"
  • 25 (10%) to "death in its finality" or "the second death"
  • 108 (41%) to "unforgiven sin", where the precise consequence is not stated
  • 15 (6%) to "anguish"

Wenham claims that just a single verse (Revelation 14:11) sounds like eternal torment. This is a total of 264 references.[58] Ralph Bowles argues the word order of the verse was chosen to fit a chiastic structure, and does not support eternal punishing.[59]

Opposing texts

  • Matthew 8:12 "...where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth."
  • Matthew 22:13 "...where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth." Same as Matt 8:12
  • Matthew 10:15 "... it will be more bearable for Sodom and Gomorrah on the day of judgment.."
  • Matthew 11:24 "... it will be more bearable for Sodom on the day of judgment than for you"
  • Mark 12:38–40 "... Such men will be punished most severely."
  • Revelation 20:15 "If anyone's name was not found written in the book of life, he was thrown into the lake of fire" Ø

Incompatibility with God's love

Inherent in the annihilationist stance are notions of divine justice and love (1 John 4:16). Some Annihilationists claim that the idea of an eternal place of torment is morally repugnant, and an unfair punishment for finite sins. How can this accurately reflect God's ultimate victory over suffering and evil, they argue, when it permanently installs a place of suffering in the final, eternal order? Likewise, how can the saved live in blissful joy knowing that some of their loved ones suffer forever in hell? Opponents of this view respond that only God is qualified to determine divine justice, and raise suspicions that Annihilationists may be succumbing to modern cultural pressures and worldliness. In response to the suggestion that unrepentant sinners aren't deserving of eternal punishment, advocates of the sola scriptura doctrine also believe in the concept of grace, i.e. that the people who receive salvation receive it even though they don't deserve it.

The traditional doctrine of eternal torment in hell would seem to suggest that torment, or torture, is a legitimate form of punishment, since God Himself employs it. However, the 'Catechism of the Catholic Church' (paras 2297-8) states that 'torture, which uses physical or moral violence to extract confessions, punish the guilty, frighten opponents, or satisfy hatred is contrary to respect for the person and for human dignity'. Admitting and regretting that the Church did in the past sometimes tolerate the use of torture, the Catechism continues: 'it has become evident that these cruel practices were neither necessary for public order, nor in conformity with the legitimate rights of the human person...it is necessary to work for their abolition.'

Hellenic origins

Many annihilationists believe that the concept of an immortal soul separate from the body comes from Greek philosophy, particularly from Plato. For example, Plato's Myth of Er depicts disembodied souls being sent underground to be punished after death. Hellenistic culture had a significant influence on the early Christian church, see also Hellenistic Judaism. By this scenario, the soul does not appear in the Bible and is seen there only by those taught to assume that the soul exists in the first place. [citation needed]

People

Advocates

British:

North American:

Agnostics

Others have remained "agnostic", not taking a stand on the issue of hell. The three listed are also British:

  • F. F. Bruce, who described himself as "agnostic" on this issue
  • C. S. Lewis, who did not clearly sum up his thoughts on the topic
  • N. T. Wright rejects eternal torment, universalism, and apparently also annihilation; but believes those who reject God will become dehumanized, and no longer be in the image of God[61]

See also

References

  1. ^ L. E. Froom, The Condionalist Faith of our Fathers (Washington, DC: Review and Herald, 1965-1966).
  2. ^ Richard Bauckham Universalism: a historical survey Themelios 4.2 (September 1978): 47-54. "Here and there, outside the theological mainstream, were some who believed that the wicked would be finally annihilated (in its commonest form. this is the doctrine of 'conditional immortality')." "Since 1800 this situation has entirely changed, and no traditional Christian doctrine has been so widely abandoned as that of eternal punishment.3 Its advocates among theologians today must be fewer than ever before. The alternative interpretation of hell as annihilation seems to have prevailed even among many of the more conservative theologians."
  3. ^ Edwards, D. L. & Stott, J. Essentials : a liberal-evangelical dialogue London : Hodder & Stoughton, 1988, pp. 313-320.
  4. ^ Gore, The Religion of the Church Oxford: Mowbray, 1916, pp. 91f.
  5. ^ Temple, W., Christus Veritas London: Macmillan, 1924, p. 209
  6. ^ Quick O.C., Doctrines of the Creed London: Nisbet, 1933, pp. 257f.
  7. ^ Simon U., The End is Not Yet Welwyn: Nisbet, 1964, pp. 206f.
  8. ^ Caird G. B., The Revelation of St John the Divine London: A. and C. Black., 1966, pp. 186f., 260
  9. ^ Wenham J. The Goodness of God London: IVP, 1974, ch. 2 (leaves the issue open between everlasting punishment and annihilation).
  10. ^ Crockett, Four Views on Hell, p52–53 (he accepts the traditional view)
  11. ^ St. Ignatius: Epistle to the Magnesians - http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0105.htm
  12. ^ St. Justin Martyr: Dialogue with Trypho (Chapter V) - http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/justinmartyr-dialoguetrypho.html
  13. ^ St. Irenaeus: Against Heresies: Book II, Chapter 34 - http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103234.htm
  14. ^ Arnobius, Against the Heathen: Book II, paragraph 61, last sentence.
  15. ^ John Wesley Furthermore, it should be noted that this comment was made in regard to Calvinism and their insistence that some were pre-destined to receive Christ, and others to be eternally punished. How much weight this statement of Wesley's should be placed on his idea of eternal condemnation remains debated. Actually, the terminology "being destroyed body and soul in hell" is from the lips of Jesus. Matthew 10:28 "And do not fear those who kill the body but cannot kill the soul. But rather fear Him who is able to destroy both soul and body in hell." However, the word "destroy" in the original Greek (apollumi) does not necessarily mean to annihilate or cause to become non-existent. This word has the idea of ruin as to its useful original purpose. SERMON 128, Preached at Bristol, in the year 1740 - http://gbgm-umc.org/umhistory/wesley/sermons/serm-128.stm
  16. ^ An Inquiry; Are the Souls of the Wicked Immortal? In Three Letters, 1841. Six Sermons on the Inquiry: Is there Immortality in Sin and Suffering?, 1842; followed by several later versions; reprint
  17. ^ It had the motto "No immortality, or endless life except through Jesus Christ alone." Sources: Lest We Forget 1:4 (1991). "George Storrs: 1796–1879: A Biographical Sketch". HarvestHerald.com, accessed June 2010
  18. ^ Letter from Fitch to Storrs, January 25, 1844
  19. ^ a b c d Gary Land, "Conditional Immortality" entry in Historical Dictionary of the Seventh-day Adventists. Scarecrow, 2005, p68–69
  20. ^ Roswell F. Cottrell, Review and Herald 1853 – the first clear statement. James White, "Destruction of the Wicked" series, Review and Herald 1854 [1]?. D. P. Hall, articles in 1854, republished as the book Man Not Immortal, 1854. J. N. Loughborough series; republished as Is the Soul Immortal?, 1856
  21. ^ D. M. Canright, History of the Doctrine of the Immortality of the Soul, 1871. Uriah Smith, Man's Nature and Destiny, 1884
  22. ^ Le Roy Froom [and team], The Conditionalist Faith of our Fathers, 2 vols. Washington, D.C.: Review and Herald, 1965–66; online link. See also article series in the Review. One pair of reviews is Alfred-Félix Vaucher, "The History of Conditionalism". Andrews University Seminary Studies 4:2 (July 1966), p193–200 [Vol. II]. He considers it of "greatest use" to theologians and other readers, and presents only "few reservations" for such a "voluminous work". It is aimed at English readers, and thus focuses on Great Britain and America; Vaucher expounds on continental European supporters. He disagrees with the inclusion of the Waldenses as conditionalists, and other descriptions of their history. Vaucher, review in Andrews University Seminary Studies 5 (1967), p202–204 [Vol. I]. Vaucher praises Froom's "erudition"; a "monumental work" without "rival". He questions whether several individuals should be claimed for conditionalism, or that the Pharisees taught an immortal soul. He challenged the preaching tone of books, and related artwork
  23. ^ Clark Pinnock, "The Conditional View", p147 footnote 21; in William Crockett, ed., Four Views on Hell. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 1992
  24. ^ http://www.auss.info/auss_publication_file.php?pub_id=408&journal=1&type=pdf
  25. ^ a b c d Brian P. Phillips, "Annihilation or endless torment?". Ministry 69:8 (August 1996), p15,17–18
  26. ^ Samuele Bacchiocchi, "Hell: Eternal Torment or Annihilation?" chapter 6 in Immortality Or Resurrection?. Biblical Perspectives, 1997; ISBN 1-930987-12-9, ISBN 978-1-930987-12-8
  27. ^ "Fundamental Beliefs" (1980) webpage from the official church website. See "25. Second Coming of Christ", "26. Death and Resurrection", "27. Millennium and the End of Sin", and "28. New Earth". The earlier 1872 and 1931 statements also support conditionalism
  28. ^ Such as the Handbook of Seventh-day Adventist Theology (2000) from the Commentary Reference Series, and others. See also [2] and [3]
  29. ^ John Stott: A Global Ministry by Timothy Dudley-Smith, p353
  30. ^ a b J. I. Packer (Spring 1997). Evangelical Annihilationism in Review (PDF). Vol. 6. pp. 37–51. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  31. ^ Essentials: A Liberal-Evangelical Dialogue by David L. Edwards with a response from John Stott. 1988, p314 [313–320]
  32. ^ In 1993. John Stott: A Global Ministry, 354
  33. ^ Essentials, p314
  34. ^ Essentials, p314–15
  35. ^ Essentials, p320
  36. ^ Philip Edgcumbe Hughes, The True Image: The Origin and Destiny of Man in Christ. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans; and Leicester, United Kingdom: Inter-Varsity Press, 1989, p398-407. As cited by Packer (and Pinnock)
  37. ^ John Wenham, The Goodness of God. London: InterVarsity Press, 1974
  38. ^ John Wenham, The Enigma of Evil, Britain: InterVarsity Press, 1985; a 2nd edition. A new edition with an extended chapter on the debate was published by Eagle books in 1994, from Guilford, England. As cited by Phillips
  39. ^ Wenham, "The Case for Conditional Immortality" in N. M. S. Cameron, ed., Universalism and the Doctrine of Hell. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1992. A report on the Fourth Edinburgh Conference on Christian Dogmatics
  40. ^ John Wenham, Facing Hell: An Autobiography 1913–1996. Paternoster Press: 1998
  41. ^ Wenham in Universalism and the Doctrine of Hell, p190,191; as quoted by Phillips
  42. ^ Edward W. Fudge, The Fire that Consumes: A Biblical and Historical Study of Final Punishment. Houston: Providential, 1982. Author's webpage. Fudge is a member of the Churches of Christ
  43. ^ Four Views on Hell, p137 footnote 5
  44. ^ As cited by Phillips
  45. ^ An early article was Pinnock, "Fire, then Nothing". Christianity Today (March 20, 1987), p40–41. He lists the evangelical authors who persuaded him as: Stott, Fudge, Hughes, and Green (as cited elsewhere in this article), and Stephen Travis, I Believe in the Second Coming of Christ. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1982, p196–199. Listed in Four Views on Hell, p137 footnote 5
  46. ^ Basil F. C. Atkinson, Life and Immortality: An Examination of the Nature and Meaning of Life and Death as They Are Revealed in the Scriptures. Taunton, England: printed by E. Goodman, 196–?. As cited by Phillips, and WorldCat
  47. ^ John Stott: A Global Ministry, p353
  48. ^ An Exposition of the Seven Church Ages (1965), 133-135; The Revelation of the Seven Seals (1967), 487
  49. ^ Church of England, "The Mystery of Salvation: The Doctrine Commission of the General Synod" (1995), p199; published by Church House Publishing, London, 1995; copyrighted by The Central Board of Finance of the Church of England, 1995, ISBN 0-7151-3778-6
  50. ^ Evangelical Alliance; Alliance Commission on Unity and Truth among Evangelicals (2000). "Conclusions and Recommendations". In Hilborn, David (ed.). The Nature of Hell. London: Paternoster Publishing. pp. 130–5. ISBN 978-0-9532992-2-5.
  51. ^ Eryl Davies, The Wrath of God, Evangelical Movement of Wales.W. G. T. Shedd, The Doctrine of Endless Punishment, was reissued by Banner of Truth Trust. As cited by Phillips
  52. ^ Paul Helm, The Last Things: Death, Judgment, Heaven and Hell. Banner of Truth, 1989
  53. ^ Letter from F. F. Bruce to John Stott in 1989, as quoted in John Stott: A Global Ministry, 354
  54. ^ According to F. F. Bruce, in his foreword to Edward Fudge, The Fire That Consumes, p.viii
  55. ^ Pinnock, "The Conditional View", in Crockett; p150 incl. footnote 28
  56. ^ C. S. Lewis, The Problem of Pain. London and Glasgow: Collins, 1940, p114–115; emphasis in original
  57. ^ Essentials, p316
  58. ^ chapter 6, "Hell: Not Endless" in The Enigma of Evil by John Wenham, p68–92; esp. 81–83. Quotations are Wenham's terms, not the Bible's necessarily. The first edition of the book was titled, The Goodness of God, but contained little or none of this discussion
  59. ^ Ralph G. Bowles, "Does Revelation 14:11 Teach Eternal Torment? Examining a Proof-text on Hell". Evangelical Quarterly 73:1 (2000), p21–36
  60. ^ Michael Green, Evangelism Through the Local Church. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1990, p69–70
  61. ^ N. T. Wright, Surprised by Hope, chapter 11 "Purgatory, Paradise, Hell"; preview; as cited elsewhere

Further reading

Mixed perspectives:

  • William Crockett, ed., Four Views on Hell
  • Edward Fudge and Robert Peterson, Two Views of Hell: A Biblical & Theological Dialogue. Downers Grove, Illinois: InterVarsity Press, 2000

Advocates:

Critics:

  • Christopher W. Morgan and Robert A. Peterson, eds., Hell Under Fire: Modern Scholarship Reinvents Eternal Punishment. Zondervan, 2004; ISBN 0-310-24041-7, ISBN 978-0-310-24041-9
  • Robert A. Peterson, Hell on Trial: The Case for Eternal Punishment. P&R Publishing, 1995; ISBN 0-87552-372-2, ISBN 978-0-87552-372-9

External links

Critical