Mesopotamian campaign: Difference between revisions
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==Background== |
==Background== |
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[[Image:World War I- Battle of Oghratine -memory.loc.gov.png|thumb|200px|Battle of Oghratin]] |
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The war in Mesopotamia (modern [[Iraq]]) was almost accidental in its scope. The British had no serious interest in this part of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman government lead by [[Enver Pasha]] didn't care much about it either, it ranked in priorities below the [[Caucasus_Campaign]], the [[Sinai and Palestine Campaign]], and the [[Arab revolt]]. |
The war in Mesopotamia (modern [[Iraq]]) was almost accidental in its scope. The British had no serious interest in this part of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman government lead by [[Enver Pasha]] didn't care much about it either, it ranked in priorities below the [[Caucasus_Campaign]], the [[Sinai and Palestine Campaign]], and the [[Arab revolt]]. |
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Revision as of 20:26, 24 March 2006
The Mesopotamian Campaign was a campaign in the Middle Eastern theatre of the World War I fought between Allied Powers represented by the British Empire, mostly troops from the British Raj, and Central Powers, mostly of the Ottoman Empire.
Background
The war in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) was almost accidental in its scope. The British had no serious interest in this part of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman government lead by Enver Pasha didn't care much about it either, it ranked in priorities below the Caucasus_Campaign, the Sinai and Palestine Campaign, and the Arab revolt.
The British interests were to protect their oil refinery at Abadan and to defend their allies in the area (Persia and Kuwait). Ottoman interests were to maintain the status quo.
Before the war started the British sent a military force to protect Abadan, one of the worlds earliest oil refineries. The British didn't use much oil at the start of the war but they had already started building warships which would be fueled by oil instead of coal in 1912.
The First Year
On November 6 1914, the British force attacked and took the Turkish fort at Fao. Two weeks later, the British occupied the city of Basra. The main Turkish army, under the over-all command of Khalil Pasha was located 275 north-west around Baghdad and made only minor efforts dislodge the British from the south end of Mesopotamia.
In April of 1915, a new British commander, General Nixon was sent to the area. He ordered his commander in the field, General Townshend to advance to Kut or Baghdad if possible. Townsheand and his small army advanced up the Tigris river, defeating several Ottoman forces sent to halt him. Worried about the possible fall of Baghdad, Enver Pasha sent an old German general, Baron von der Goltz, to take command of the Ottoman army in the field. Townshend and Goltz fought a battle at Ctesiphon, 25 miles south of Baghdad. The battle was inconclusive as both the Ottomans and the British ended up retreating from the battlefield. However, Townshend concluded a full scale retreat was necessary so he withdrew in good order back to Kut, then halted and fortified the position.
The Siege of Kut
Defending Kut as opposed to retreating back to Basra was a mistake. Kut was isolated, and while it could be defended, it could not be resupplied. Baron von der Goltz was a famous military historian who had written several classic books on military operations, he had also spent 12 years working with the Ottoman army. Under his expert direction the Turkish forces (1) built defensive positions around the land side of Kut (2) laid siege to the British and (3) built fortified positions down river designed to fend off any attempt to rescue Townshend.
The siege of Kut lasted from December 7 1915 till April 29 1916. The British made three major attempts to break the siege, each effort was unsuccessful. After the first failure, General Nixon was replaced by General Lake. All told the British suffered 23,000 casualties in their unsuccessful effort to break the siege. Townshend surrendered April 29 1916 and his 8,000 soldiers became captives of the Ottomans. More than half of the British prisoners died as they were forced to do hard labor for the remainder of the war.
Baron von der Goltz died just before the surrender of Kut, supposedly of typhus. With the loss of Baron von der Goltz, the Ottomans never won another battle against the British in Mesopotamia.
The British viewed the loss of Kut as a humiliating defeat. It had been many years since such a large body of British Army soliders had surrendered to an enemy. Also this loss followed by only four months the British defeat at the Battle of Gallipoli. Nearly all the British commanders involved in the failure to rescue Townshend were removed from command. The Turks proved they were good at holding defensive positions against superior forces.
Back to Baghdad
The British refused to let this defeat stand and so the new commander, General Maude was given additional reinforcements and equipment. For the next six months he trained and organized his army. His offensive was launched on December 13 1916. The British advanced up both sides of the Tigris river, forcing the Ottoman army out of a number of fortified positions along the way. General Maude's offensive was methodical, organized, and successful. The British recaptured Kut in February of 1917, destroying most of the Ottoman army in the process.
By early March, the British were at the outskirts of Baghdad, and the Baghdad garrison, under the direct command of the Governor of Baghdad province Khalil Pasha, tried to stop them. General Maude outmanouvered the Turkish forces, destroyed a Turkish regiment and captured the Turkish defensive positions. Khalil Pasha retreated in disarray out of the city. On March 11 1917 the British entered Baghdad where they were greeted as liberators. Amidst the confusion of the retreat a majority of the Ottoman army (some 9,000 soldiers) were captured. A week after the city fell, General Maude issuing the oft-quoted Proclamation of Baghdad, which contained the famous line "our armies do not come into your cities and lands as conquerors or enemies, but as liberators".
The End of the War
Further small scale attacks were made by the British towards the north and east but General Maude died from cholera in November of 1917 and his successor, General William Marshall halted operations for the winter. The British resumed their offensive in late February 1918 capturing Kifri and Hit. General Marshall's forces supported General Lionel Dunsterville's operations in Persia during the summer of 1918. In October the British went on the offensive for the last time and fought a battle at Fat-Ha, routing the Turkish army. General Marshall accepted the surrender of Khalil Pasha and the Turkish 6th Army on October 30 1918. British troops marched unopposed into Mosul on the 14 November 1918.
The British lost 92,000 soldiers in the Mesopotamian campaign. Turkish losses are unknown but the British captured a total of 45,000 prisoners of war. By the end of 1918 the British had deployed 410,000 men into the area though only 112,000 of them were combat troops. The vast majority of the British empire forces in this campaign were recruited from India.
Sources
- Mesopotamia Campaign - from The Long, Long Trail website, downloaded January, 2006.
- Strachan, Hew (2003). The First World War, pp 123-125. Viking (Published by the Penguin Group)
- Fromkin, David (1989). A Peace to End All Peace. Avon Books.
- U.S. Military Academy map of the 1915 Campaign
- U.S. Military Academy map of the Siege of Kut
- Esposito, Vincent (ed.) (1959). The West Point Atlas of American Wars - Vol. 2; map 53. Frederick Praeger Press.
- Briton Cooper Busch (1971) Britain, India, and the Arabs 1914-1921. University of California Press.
- A. J. Barker (1967) The Neglected War. Faber and Faber.
Battles of the campaign
- Fao Landing
- Fall of Basra
- Battle of Qurna
- Battle of Es Sinn
- Battle of Ctesiphon
- Siege of Kut
Attempts to Relieve Kut: - Second Battle of Kut
- Fall of Baghdad
- Samarrah Offensive
- Battle of Jebel Hamlin
- Battle of Istabulat
- Battle of Ramadi
- Battle of Sharqat
See also
Here is a list of articles with more detailed information on the political, organizational and economic origins of the campaign:
General:
- Ottoman Empire
- Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire
- Tanzimat
- II Constitutional Era in the Ottoman Empire
- Young Turks
World War I related: