Environmental effects of paper: Difference between revisions
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==Issues== |
==Issues== |
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{{see also|Paper pollution}} |
{{see also|Paper pollution}} We need to stop now! If we don't, our whole world won't recycle air that we breath! |
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===Deforestation=== |
===Deforestation=== |
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Revision as of 14:36, 26 March 2012
The environmental impact of paper is significant, which has led to changes in industry and behavior at both business and personal levels. With the use of modern technology such as the printing press and the highly mechanised harvesting of wood, paper has become a cheap commodity. This has led to a high level of consumption and waste. With the rise in environmental awareness due to the lobbying by environmental organizations and with increased government regulation there is now a trend towards sustainability in the pulp and paper industry.
Issues
We need to stop now! If we don't, our whole world won't recycle air that we breath!
Deforestation
Worldwide consumption of paper has risen by 400% in the past 40 years, with 35% of harvested trees being used for paper manufacture. Logging of old growth forests accounts for less than 10% of wood pulp,[1] but is one of the most controversial issues. Plantation forest, from where the majority of wood for pulping is obtained, is generally a monoculture and this raises concerns over the ecological effects of the practice.
Deforestation is often seen as a problem in developing countries but also occurs in the developed world. Woodchipping to produce paper pulp is a contentious environmental issue in Australia.[2] In the 1990s, the New Zealand government stopped the export of woodchips from native forests after campaigning by environmentalists.[3]
Air pollution
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) sulfur dioxide (SO2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are all emitted during paper manufacturing. Nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide are major contributors of acid rain, whereas CO2 is a greenhouse gas responsible for climate change.
Water pollution
Waste water discharges for a pulp and paper mill contains solids, nutrients and dissolved organic matter, and unless at low levels these are classed as pollutants. Nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus can cause or exacerbate eutrophication of fresh water bodies such as lakes and rivers. Organic matter dissolved in fresh water, measured by Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), changes ecological characteristics, and in worse case scenarios leads to death of all higher living organisms. Waste water may also be polluted with organochlorine compounds. Some of these are naturally occurring in the wood, but chlorine bleaching of the pulp produces far larger amounts.[4]
Discharges can also discolour the water leading to reduced aesthetics. This has happened with the Tarawera River in New Zealand which subsequently became known as the "black drain".
Wood pulping process
Bleaching mechanical pulp is not a major cause for environmental concern since most of the organic material is retained in the pulp, and the chemicals used (hydrogen peroxide and sodium dithionite) produce benign byproducts (water and sodium sulfate (finally), respectively).
However, the bleaching of chemical pulps has the potential to cause significant environmental damage, primarily through the release of organic materials into waterways. Pulp mills are almost always located near large bodies of water because they require substantial quantities of water for their processes. An increased public awareness of environmental issues from the 1970s and 1980s, as evidenced by the formation of organizations like Greenpeace, influenced the pulping industry and governments to address the release of these materials into the environment.[5] Environmental NGO pressure was especially intense on Swedish and Finnish pulp and paper companies.[6]
Conventional bleaching using elemental chlorine produces and releases into the environment large amounts of chlorinated organic compounds, including chlorinated dioxins.[4] Dioxins are recognized as a persistent environmental pollutant, regulated internationally by the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants.
Dioxins are highly toxic, and health effects on humans include reproductive, developmental, immune and hormonal problems. They are known to be carcinogenic. Over 90% of human exposure is through food, primarily meat, dairy, fish and shellfish, as dioxins accumulate in the food chain in the fatty tissue of animals.[7]
As a result, from the 1990 onwards the use of elemental chlorine in the delignification process was substantially reduced and replaced with ECF (Elemental Chlorine Free) and TCF (Totally Chlorine Free) bleaching processes. In 2005, elemental chlorine was used in 19–20% of kraft pulp production globally, down from over 90% in 1990. 75% of kraft pulp used ECF, with the remaining 5–6% using TCF.[8] Most TCF pulp is produced in Sweden and Finland for sale in Germany,[8] all markets with a high level of environmental awareness. In 1999, TCF pulp represented 25% of the European market.[9]
TCF bleaching, by removing chlorine from the process, reduces chlorinated organic compounds to background levels in pulp mill effluent.[10] ECF bleaching can substantially reduce but not fully eliminate chlorinated organic compounds, including dioxins, from effluent. While modern ECF plants can achieve chlorinated organic compounds (AOX) emissions of less than 0.05 kg per tonne of pulp produced, most do not achieve this level of emissions. Within the EU, the average chlorinated organic compound emissions for ECF plants is 0.15 kg per tonne.[11]
However, there has been disagreement about the comparative environmental effects of ECF and TCF bleaching. On the one hand, paper and chemical industry-funded studies have generally found that there is no environmental difference between ECF and TCF effluents.[12] On the other hand, independent peer-reviewed study has found that, comparing conventional, ECF and TCF effluents before and after secondary treatment, “TCF effluents are the least toxic”.[13]
Non-renewable resources
Clay or calcium carbonate are used as fillers for some papers. Kaolin is the most commonly used clay for coated papers.
Mitigation
Some of the effect of the pulp and paper industry can be addressed and there is some change towards sustainable practices. The use of wood solely from plantation forests address concerns about loss of old growth forests.
Bleaching
The move to non-elemental chlorine for the bleaching process reduced the emission of the carcinogenic organochlorines. Peracetic acid, ozone[14] and hydrogen peroxide and oxygen are used in bleaching sequences in the pulp industry to produce totally chlorine free (TCF) paper.
Recycling
There are three categories of paper that can be used as feedstocks for making recycled paper: mill broke, pre-consumer waste, and post-consumer waste.[15] Mill broke is paper trimmings and other paper scrap from the manufacture of paper, and is recycled internally in a paper mill. Pre-consumer waste is material that was discarded before it was ready for consumer use. Post-consumer waste is material discarded after consumer use such as old magazines, old telephone directories, and residential mixed paper.[16]
One concern about recycling wood pulp paper is that the fibers are degraded with each and after being recycled four or five times the fibers become too short and weak to be useful in making paper.[17]
The United States Environmental Protection Agency has found that recycling causes 35% less water pollution and 74% less air pollution than making virgin paper.[18] Pulp mills can be sources of both air and water pollution, especially if they are producing bleached pulp. Modern mills produce considerably less pollution than those of a few decades ago. Recycling paper decreases the demand for virgin pulp and thus reduces the overall amount of air and water pollution associated with paper manufacture. Recycled pulp can be bleached with the same chemicals used to bleach virgin pulp, but hydrogen peroxide and sodium hydrosulfite are the most common bleaching agents. Recycled pulp, or paper made from it, is known as PCF (process chlorine free) if no chlorine-containing compounds were used in the recycling process.[19]
Inks
Three main issues with the environmental impact of printing inks is the use of volatile organic compounds, heavy metals and non-renewable oils. Standards for the amount of heavy metals in ink have been set by some regulatory bodies.[20] There is a trend toward using vegetable oils rather than petroleum oils in recent years due to a demand for better sustainability.
Deinking recycled paper pulp results in a waste slurry which may go to landfill. De-inking at Cross Pointe's Miami, Ohio mill in the United States results in sludge weighing 22% of the weight of wastepaper recycled.[21]
In the 1970s federal regulations for inks in the United States governed the use of toxic metals such as lead, arsenic, selenium, mercury, cadmium and hexavalent chromium.[22]
See also
- Totally chlorine free paper
- Elemental chlorine free paper
- List of environmental issues
- Life cycle assessment
References
- ^ Martin, Sam (2004). "Paper Chase". Ecology Communications, Inc. Archived from the original on 2007-06-19. Retrieved 2007-09-21.
{{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - ^ Open Mind Research Group on behalf of their client Environment Victoria (1994-12-4). "Woodchipping to Japan - Joint Environment Group Commissioned Public Opinion". Forest Fact File. "Newspoll - December 1994 - To the Question "Next a question about native forests. Do you personally approve or disapprove of trees from Australian's native forests being fell and exported as woodchips to Japan? 80.3% of Australians disapproved, 11.7% approved, 8.0% undecided."
- ^ Woodchipping in New Zealand
- ^ a b "Effluents from Pulp Mills using Bleaching - PSL1". ISBN 0-662-18734-2 DSS. Health Canada. 1991. Retrieved 2007-09-21.
{{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - ^ Sonnenfeld, David A. (1999). "Social Movements and Ecological Modernization: The Transformation of Pulp and Paper Manufacturing, Paper: WP00-6-Sonnenfeld". Berkeley Workshop on Environmental Politics. Berkeley,CA: Institute of International Studies (University of California, Berkeley). Retrieved 2007-09-20.
{{cite conference}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help); Unknown parameter|booktitle=ignored (|book-title=suggested) (help) - ^ Auer, Matthew R. (1996). "Negotiating toxic risks: A case from the Nordic countries," Environmental Politics 5: 687-699.
- ^ "Dioxins and their effects on human health". World Health Organization. 2010 work. Retrieved 2010-06-11.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|year=(help); Cite has empty unknown parameters:|(empty string)=and|coauthors=(help) - ^ a b "Frequently Asked Questions on Kraft Pulp Mills" (PDF). Ensis/CSIRO (Australia) joint research [1]. 2005-03-04. Retrieved 2007-09-21.
{{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help); External link in|publisher= - ^ Chlorine Free Products Association (1999). CFPA Today.
{{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help); Missing or empty|title=(help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ "ENVIRONMENTAL COMPARISON OF BLEACHED KRAFT PULP MANUFACTURING" (PDF). Environmental Defense Fund [2]. 1995. Retrieved 2007-11-18.
{{cite web}}: External link in|publisher=|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ Ad Hoc Working Group of European Commission (2006). "Revision of the Ecolabelling Criteria for Tissue Paper: Comments and background to the second draft proposal" (PDF).
{{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help); Cite journal requires|journal=(help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ "ECF and TCF: Toxicity An Analysis of Recent Published Data". The Alliance for
Environmental Technology (International Association) joint research [3]. 1994. Retrieved 2007-10-26.
{{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help); External link in|publisher=|month=ignored (help); line feed character in|publisher=at position 17 (help) - ^ Tarkpea, Maria (1999). "TOXICITY OF CONVENTIONAL, ELEMENTAL CHLORINE–FREE, AND TOTALLY CHLORINE–FREE KRAFT-PULP BLEACHING EFFLUENTS ASSESSED BY SHORTTERM LETHAL AND SUBLETHAL BIOASSAYS". Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 18 (11): 2487–2496.
{{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|month=(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ "Ozone and Color Removal". Ozone Information. Retrieved 2009-01-09.
- ^ "Debunking the Myths of Recycled Paper". Recycling Point Dot Com. Archived from the original on 2006-10-06. Retrieved 2007-02-04.
- ^ "Recycling glossary". American Forest and Paper Association. Archived from the original on 2007-06-30. Retrieved 2007-10-20.
- ^ "Paper Recycling Information Sheet". Waste Online. Retrieved October 20, 2007.
- ^ "Recycle on the Go: Basic Information". US Environmental Protection Agency. October 18, 2007. Retrieved 2007-10-30.
- ^ MacFadden, Todd (1996). "Facts About Paper". Printers' National
Environmental Assistance Center, Montana State University. Retrieved 2007-10-30.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help); line feed character in|publisher=at position 19 (help) - ^ http://www.cpima.org/HeavyMetals.pdf
- ^ "Recycling Paper and Glass". US Department of Energy. 2006. Retrieved 2007-10-30.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ National Association of Printing Ink Manufacturers
Further reading
Case Studies
- Laplante, Benoît and Rilstone, Paul, Environmental Inspections and Emissions of the Pulp and Paper Industry: The Case of Quebec, April 1995, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 1447.
Industry Profile
- World Bank Group, Pulp and Paper Mill, Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook, July 1998.
- United States Environmental Protection Agency, Profile of the Pulp and Paper Industry 2nd Edition, November 2002.
Life Cycle Assessment
- Forest Products Association of Canada, Life Cycle Assessment and Forest Products:A White Paper, September 2010
New Technologies
- United States Environmental Protection Agency, Available and Emerging Technologies for Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions from the Pulp and Paper Manufacturing Industry, Office of Air and Radiation, October 2010.
