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A confidential [[California Department of Justice]] study reported in 1995 that 60 percent of the twenty thousand members of the [[18th Street Gang]] in [[California]] are illegal immigrants.<ref name=Testimony>{{cite web|url=http://www.manhattan-institute.org/html/mac_donald04-13-05.htm Manhattan Institute For Policy Research|title=Testimony|author=Heather Mac Donald|date=2005-04-13|accessdate=2007-06-05}}</ref>
A confidential [[California Department of Justice]] study reported in 1995 that 60 percent of the twenty thousand members of the [[18th Street Gang]] in [[California]] are illegal immigrants.<ref name=Testimony>{{cite web|url=http://www.manhattan-institute.org/html/mac_donald04-13-05.htm Manhattan Institute For Policy Research|title=Testimony|author=Heather Mac Donald|date=2005-04-13|accessdate=2007-06-05}}</ref>


== Gang activity and purposeCrime Tips & Violence - Texas Gangs |publisher=Stop Houston Gangs |date= |accessdate=2012-03-08}}</ref> after becoming more sophisticated and powerful.
== Gang activity and purpose ==
Most gangs in the United States are formed with some type of intention. Gangs such as [[Latin Kings (gang)|Latin Kings]] and the [[Bloods]] say they represent "brotherhood" and unity. Police say 80% of crimes throughout the country are committed by gang members.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2009-01-29-ms13_N.htm | work=USA Today | first=Kevin | last=Johnson | title=FBI: Burgeoning gangs behind up to 80% of U.S. crime | date=2009-01-29}}</ref> Although most gangs started in [[major cities]] such as [[Los Angeles]], [[Chicago]], [[Miami]] and [[New York City]],<ref>{{cite web|author=Robert Walker |url=http://www.gangsorus.com/gang_history.html |title=Gang History - Involvement by Asians, Blacks, Hispanics and Whites |publisher=Gangsorus.com |date=2012-02-22 |accessdate=2012-03-08}}</ref> they migrated to other U.S. cities such as [[Atlanta]], [[Memphis]], [[Orlando]], [[Houston]] and [[Detroit]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Gangs_in_Detroit,_Michigan |title=Category:Gangs in Detroit, Michigan - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia |publisher=En.wikipedia.org |date= |accessdate=2012-03-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.clickorlando.com/news/4235035/detail.html |title=Orlando News, Orange County, Fla., News and Local Headlines &#124; WKMG Local 6 |publisher=Click Orlando |date=2012-03-02 |accessdate=2012-03-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://stophoustongangs.org/default.aspx?AspxAutoDetectCookieSupport=1 |title=Report Gang Crime Tips & Violence - Texas Gangs |publisher=Stop Houston Gangs |date= |accessdate=2012-03-08}}</ref> after becoming more sophisticated and powerful.


==Original gangsters==
==Original gangsters==

Revision as of 09:22, 14 May 2013

Latin Kings graffiti of the King Master along with the abbreviations "L" and "K" on the sides. The Latin Kings are the largest Hispanic street gang in the US.[1][2][3]
Street tag of the African-American Crips gang.

Street gangs in the United States date to the early 20th century.[4] Presently, the most publicized street gangs in the U.S. are African-American; black gangs were not recognized as a social problem until after the great migration to Northern cities of the 1910s.[5] An exception was noted in 1853 Philadelphia.[6]

Some[who?] have argued that increasing gang activity is directly related to decreases in adult mentors, school failures, decreases in after-school programs and similar failures by the adults in the lives of children. While kids from more affluent neighborhoods may turn to other less dangerous alternatives, children from poorer neighborhoods often turn to gangs both as protection and a place to find love, understanding and a sense of belonging/purpose.[7]

Others have argued that the increase of gang related activity in minority populations, specifically that of the African American population in the United States is largely due to a mass ideological shift within urban communities from more conservative family values to more liberalized and anti-social establishment values; a shift which began largely during the 1960s Black socialist movement. The shift also directly coincides with the formation of the first documented African American gangs in the United States, the Crips and the Bloods.[8] This has been thought to be a contributor to the many psychological motivations for Black youth joining gangs-- like the legacy of feeling disenfranchised from mainstream culture and needing an outlet to express one's anger at that supposed disenfranchisement.[9]

Gangs in the United States vary by nationality, race, location and purpose/agenda (in cases when crimes are often committed). Many began, and still exist, in urban areas (pre-dating the 19th century).

Historically, Western (outlaw) and Mobster (gang) genres make up some of the most successful films in the America movie industry.

Gang demographics

See also: Race and crime in the United States

There were at least 30,000 gangs and 800,000 gang members active across the USA in 2007,[10][11] up from 731,500 in 2002 and 750,000 in 2004.[12] By 1999, Hispanics accounted for 47% of all gang members, Blacks 34%, Whites 13%, and Asians 6%.[13]

Illegal immigration

One of the concerns of increased illegal immigration to the United States is gang related activity - as proved by programs such as Operation Community Shield, which has detained over fourteen hundred illegal immigrant gang members.[14] Mara Salvatrucha publicly declared that it targets the Minutemen, an anti-illegal immigration group[15] who take it upon themselves to control the border, to "teach them a lesson",[16] possibly due to their smuggling of various Central/South Americans (mostly other gang members), drugs, and weapons across the border.[17]

A confidential California Department of Justice study reported in 1995 that 60 percent of the twenty thousand members of the 18th Street Gang in California are illegal immigrants.[18]

== Gang activity and purposeCrime Tips & Violence - Texas Gangs |publisher=Stop Houston Gangs |date= |accessdate=2012-03-08}}</ref> after becoming more sophisticated and powerful.

Original gangsters

View of fight between two gangs, the Dead Rabbits and the Bowery Boys, New York City, 1857

With the exception of American cowboys, bandits, gunfighters/gungslingers and outlaws such as Jesse James, in addition to the Italian American Mafia (mobsters of organized crime) such as Al Capone, some of the original gangsters in America were the Irish Mob. Immigrants formed various gangs on the East Coast in 1783 following the American Revolution. The first recorded street gangs in the United States, such as the 40 Thieves, began around the late 1820s in New York City.

Other major gangs beginning before the 19th century were the Whyos and the Dead Rabbits. These were followed by the Italian Five Points Gang and later a Jewish gang known as the Eastman Gang. Additionally, in the late 1800s, many Chinese eventually emigrated to the Eastern United States, escaping from insecurity and economic hardship at home. The new immigrants formed Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association. In some cases these evolved into Tongs, or criminal organizations primarily involved in gambling. Members of Triads who migrated to the United States often joined these tongs.

19th century

Gangs in the 19th century were often multi-ethnic as neighborhoods did not display the social polarization that has segregated different ethnic groups in the postmodern city (see Edward Soja). A host of European nationalities including English, Scottish, Irish and German could be found in the same neighborhoods. This made territoriality for gangs much more important than ethnic homogeneity.[5][19]

Herbert Asbury depicted some of these groups in his history of Irish and American gangs in Manhattan. He described how gangs would fight for territory, control of criminal enterprises, and simply for the love of fighting. Asbury's book was later used by Martin Scorsese as the basis for the motion picture Gangs of New York.[20]

20th century

Gang Boys (1954) by Sid Davis Productions

With a new wave of internal African-American migration from the 1940s to the 1970s, street gangs began to flourish in other major cities (urban areas), such as the Crips. Regarding African-Americans, the history of youth gangs extends as far back as the 1940s. Although lacking a definition, the gangs then were characterized by young people loitering on street corners.[21] It is thought these early groups formed to protect their localities from other similar groups of youths. [citation needed]

The United States attempted to fight both the Vietnam War and the war on poverty at home. Limited funding, incoherent local and national plans to combat inner-city poverty, and escalated police and military violence against blacks and immigrants all aided towards the conditions which would eventually give birth to gangs across the United States, including the infamous Bloods and Crips of Los Angeles, California.[22]

A Crip handsign.

The Crips were formed out of the poor socio-economic and repressive conditions which African-Americans living in Los Angeles were subject to in the late 1960s. As many Black youth resorted to crime and were subsequently incarcerated, the Crips were formed in 1969 by Raymond Washington, loosely acting as a community organization which aimed to help disenfranchised African-American communities of L.A. The Bloods quickly followed, with a mandate to protect the community from external violence.[23]

As job cuts continued to rise and employers began to hire from the cheaper labour pool of the expanding Latino immigrant community,[24] unemployment rates of African-American men reached as high as 50% in several areas of South Central Los Angeles,[25] opening up large recruitment markets for the burgeoning gangs. The increasing social isolation felt by African-American communities across the nation continued unabated in the 1980s and 90s, leading to higher rates of social pathologies, including violence.[26]

As gang members and factions continued to grow, the introduction of crack cocaine (cheap and highly addictive) to American cities would prove fatal. Crack money now could be used to purchase unprecedented amounts of weaponry, and as newly armed gang members began to fight over 'turf', or the territory in which gangs would run their lucrative drug-trades, violence soared,[23] as the FBI's national data of gang-related homicides show: from 288 in 1985 up to 1362 in 1993.[27]

1990s

As gang-violence accelerated, so too did police violence against African-American communities, which culminated in the arrest of Rodney King which sparked the 1992 Los Angeles riots. In the aftermath of the riots, leaders of the Bloods and the Crips announced a truce (spearheaded by Compton's then mayor Walter R. Tucker, Jr.), and in May 1992, 1600 rival gang members converged on Imperial Courts, a main housing project of Watts, Los Angeles, California to demonstrate their new-found companionship. But after only a few months of relative harmony, tensions between Los Angeles County's more than 100,000 gang members (in February 1993) began to raise the murder rates, rising to resemble previous levels.[28]

Although various institutions and initiatives were introduced during the 1990s, including the Grant Research Evaluation and Tracking (GREAT) inter-state computer tracking system, which tracks the movements of 2,000 known gang members, and the Gang Violence and Juvenile Crime Prevention act of 1998, gangs continue to plague American inner-cities. Oakland, California saw 113 drug- and/or gang-related homicides in 2002 alone, and 2003 sported similar figures.[28] Many cities across America are still experiencing the effects of gangs on their streets, such as Baltimore, Maryland, whose gang problem is a major theme of HBO's critically acclaimed series The Wire.

In 1994, Mary "Beth" Pelz, a criminologist at University of Houston–Downtown, said that Texas lacked "a rich history of street gangs" compared to other parts of the United States. She said Houston area gangs began to branch out to newer developments in the 1980s.[29]

The 1995 murder of Stephanie Kuhen in Los Angeles, California led to condemnation from President Bill Clinton and a crackdown on Los Angeles-area gangs.[30][31]

2000s

Southwest Cholos graffiti, Gulfton, Houston.

According to a 2006 Texas Monthly article by Skip Hollandsworth, many street gangs in Texas have no organized command structures. Individual "cliques" of gangs, defined by streets, parts of streets, apartment complexes, or parts of apartment complexes, act as individual groups. Texas "Cliques" tend to be headed by leaders called "OG"s (short for "original gangsters") and each "clique" performs a specific activity or set of activities in a given area, such as controlling trafficking of recreational drugs and managing prostitution.[32]

In 2007, History's Gangland premiered on November 1, 2007 with a special episode about the Aryan Brotherhood, a white prison gang and organized crime syndicate with over 20,000 members in-and-out of prison. Gangland explores the history of some of America's more notorious gangs (from various backgrounds, ethnic groups and races).

It was reported in 2008 that 1-2% of the U.S. military belongs to gangs, according to FBI gang investigator Jennifer Simon in a published article, 50-100 times the rate in the general population.[33] In 2009, David Kennedy, director of the Center for Crime Prevention and Control at John Jay College of Criminal Justice of the City University of New York, said that a lot of violence in inner cities in the United States is mislabeled as "gang violence" when in fact it involves small, informal cliques of people.[34]

Organized gangs

Main article: Organized Crime

Hallsworth and Young (2005)[35] describe an organized gang as a group of individuals for whom involvement in crime is for personal gain (mostly financial, though could be otherwise, sexual gratification as with pedophile rings). For most, crime is their 'occupation'. These groups operate almost exclusively in the grey and illegal marketplace where market transactions are unregulated by the law.

Transnational organized crime groups may be involved in crimes ranging from drug trafficking, arms trafficking, art theft, human trafficking, contract killing, kidnapping, people smuggling, prostitution, piracy, counterfeiting, identity theft, loan sharking, money laundering, extortion, murder, and illegal gambling, to acts of terrorism, to political assassination. The complexity and seriousness of the crimes committed by global crime groups pose a threat not only to law enforcement but to democracy and legitimate economic development as well.[36]

There are numerous organized crime groups and they can be found in the majority of small to medium sized cities at varying degrees of size and organization. All large cities will house some kind of organized crime group. A further distinction could be made with what are often termed organized crime syndicates.[citation needed]

There are a number of widely known crime organizations as such whose operations span the world. Perhaps the most famous are the American Mafia (often portrayed in New York mob movies), the Irish Mob, the Chinese Triad Society, the Japanese Yakuza, the Sicilian Mafia and the Russian Mafia. Other large cities also play host to unique types of organized criminals. For example, London's East End is home to a number of traditional crime families, and was the home of the infamous Kray Twins, and Boston's Irish Mob was portrayed in the Martin Scorsese film The Departed. Recently, Chicago's Folk Nation has broken out from a street gang into international business and is thought by many to be the newest entity of the organized crime world.

Latino Gangs

An MS-13 suspect bearing gang tattoos is handcuffed. In 2004, the FBI created the MS-13 National Gang Task Force. A year later, the FBI helped create the National Gang Intelligence Center.
A member of Mara Salvatrucha.

The Latin Kings are said to be the largest and most organized Hispanic street gang in the United States of America.[37] The group has roots dating back to the 1940s in Chicago, Illinois. The Latin Kings first emerged in Chicago in the 1940s after several young Puerto Rican men on the north side—and later, Mexican men on the south side—organized into a self-defense group to protect their communities. The initial intention was to unite "all Latinos" into a collective struggle against "oppression" and to help each other overcome the problems of racism and prejudice that newly arriving Latino immigrants were experiencing. Hence, the name "Latin Kings and Queens", which as it denotes, is a reference to members of all Latino heritages. They organized themselves as a vanguard for their communities.

Like the Black Panthers, the Young Lords, and many other groups perceiving social injustices directed at their kind, the Latin Kings were broken as a movement. They lost touch with their roots and grew into one of the largest and most infamous criminal gangs in America. The group's members became involved in crimes including murder, drug trafficking, robberies and other organized criminal activities.

Mara Salvatrucha (commonly abbreviated as "MS", "Mara", or "MS-13") is a transnational criminal gang that originated in Los Angeles and has spread to Central America, other parts of the United States, and Canada. MS-13 is one of the most dangerous gangs in the United States. The majority of the gang is ethnically composed of Salvadorans, Hondurans, Guatemalans, and Nicaraguans. The MS-13 gang has 70,000 members.[1]

Their activities have caught the eye of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE), who in September 2005 initiated wide-scale raids against suspected gang members, netting 660 arrests across United States. ICE efforts were at first directed towards MS-13, in its Operation Community Shield. In May 2005, ICE expanded Operation Community Shield to include all transnational street gangs and prison gangs.

ICE's Operation Community Shield has since arrested 7,655 street gang members. In the United States, the gang's strongholds have historically been in the American Southwest and West Coast states. Membership in the U.S was believed to be as many as about 50,000 as of 2005. MS-13 criminal activities include drug smuggling and sales, arms trafficking, auto theft, carjacking, home invasion, assault, aggravated assault, assault on law enforcement officials, drive-by shootings, contract killing and murder.[citation needed]

Prison based gangs

Main article: Prison gangs in the United States

Prison gangs, like most street gangs, are formed for protection against other gangs. The goal of many street gang members is to gain the respect that comes from being in a prison gang. Prison gangs use street gangs members as their power base for which they recruit new members. For many members reaching prison gang status shows the ultimate commitment to the gang.[38]

A prison gang is a gang that is started in a prison. Some prison gangs are transplanted from the street, and in some occasions, prison gangs "outgrow" the penitentiary and engage in criminal activities on the outside. Many prison gangs are racially oriented. Gang umbrella organizations like the Folk Nation and People Nation have originated in prisons.[39]

One prominent example of a prison gang is the Aryan Brotherhood, an organization known for its violence and calls for white supremacy. On July 28, 2006, after a six-year federal investigation, four leaders of the gang were convicted of racketeering, murder, and conspiracy charges. Founded in the mid-1960s, the gang, known as the 'Brand' or the 'Rock' in the federal and state prison systems, is famous for being affiliated with the white supremacist paramilitary hate group the Aryan Nations, with the Nazi Low Riders prison gang acting as the Aryan Brotherhood's foot soldiers. Besides fostering pseudo-theological hate, racism, sexism, violence, and intimidation, the Aryan Brotherhood is involved in drug trafficking, extortion, illegal gambling, protection rackets, and murder inside and outside of prisons.[40]

In the mid-1980s, the Aryan League, an alliance between the Aryan Brotherhood and Public Enemy No. 1, formed. The sub-gangs (in collaboration with their wives and girlfriends who take jobs at banks, mortgage companies, and motor vehicle departments) work together in identity theft schemes.[41] Money from the identity theft operations is used to fund the gangs' methamphetamine business. A gang hit list discovered in the Buena Park investigation has police worried that the gangs are using stolen credit information to learn the addresses of police and their families.[41]

Once out of prison, gang members may regroup on the outside and often cross gang lines to further their criminal careers.[citation needed] One example of this is David Lind, an Aryan Brotherhood member, who joined the Wonderland Gang with several non-AB fellow prison inmates in 1981. Post prison gang activities can be brutal, as evidenced by the ruthless quadruple murder of the Wonderland gang (see "Wonderland Murders") which Lind narrowly escaped.[citation needed]

There has been a long running racial tension between African American and Mexican American prison gangs and significant race riots in California prisons where Mexican inmates and African Americans have targeted each other particularly, based on racial reasons.

Youth Gangs

Youth gangs are composed of young people, male or female, and like most street gangs, are either formed for protection or for social and economic reasons. Some of the most notorious and dangerous gangs have evolved from youth gangs. During the late 1980s and early 1990s an increase in violence in the United States took place and this was due primarily to an increase in violent acts committed by people under the age of 20.[42] Due to gangs spreading to suburban and smaller communities youth gangs are now more prevalent and exist in all regions of the United states.

Youth gangs have increasingly been creating problems in school and correctional facilities. However youth gangs are said to be an important social institution for low income youths and young adults because they often serve as cultural, social, and economic functions which are no longer served by the family, school or labor market.[43] Youth gangs tend to emerge during times of rapid social change and instability. Young people can be attracted to joining a youth gang for a number of reasons. They provide a degree of order and solidarity for their members and make them feel like part of a group or a community.[43]

Youth gangs in urban centers of the united states existed before the 19th century. By 1855, it was estimated that the city of New York contained 30,000 men who held allegiances to gang leaders. In addition, the New York City draft riots were said to have been ignited by young Irish street gangs.[44] In the draft riots mobs physically attacked blacks, lynching many, and there were more than one hundred deaths, most of which were African-Americans. Irish gangs targeted blacks because of competition for work.[45]

The diffusion of gang culture to the point where it has been integrated into a larger youth culture has lead to widespread adoption by youth of many of the symbols of gang life. For this reason, more and more youth who earlier may have not condoned gang behavior are more willing, even challenged to experiment with gang-like activity [46] Youth Gangs may be an ever-present feature of urban culture that change over time in its form, social meaning and antisocial behavior. However, in the United States youth gangs have taken an especially disturbing form and continue to permeate society.[47]

See also

References

  1. ^ "Latin Kings Live, Die By Rigid Organization". Chris Markuns The Eagle-Tribune, Lawrence, MA, February 29, 2004.
  2. ^ "Gangland: Divide and Conquer DVD, View All , HISTORY Shop". Shop.history.com. 2009-03-30. Retrieved 2010-04-15.
  3. ^ "Latin Kings gang members charged in murder, racketeering, drug offenses". The Philadelphia Inquirer. 2010-07-22. Retrieved 2010-11-27.
  4. ^ Muncie, J. (2000) "Youth & Crime" 2nd Edition, Sage, ISBN=
  5. ^ a b Adamson, Christopher(2000), "Defensive localisms in white and black: a comparative history of European-American and African American youth gangs", Ethnic and Racial Studies 23 (2): 272-298.
  6. ^ Davis, Susan, G. (1982), "Making night hideous":Christmas revelry and public order in nineteenth-century Philadelphia', American Quarterly, 34 (2): 185-199
  7. ^ http://news.medill.northwestern.edu/chicago/news.aspx?id=164963&print=1
  8. ^ ["Timeline: South Central Los Angeles". PBS (part of the "Crips and Bloods: Made in America" TV documentary). 2009-04-21. Retrieved 2009-05-15.]
  9. ^ [Stacy Peralta (Director) (2009). Crips and Bloods: Made in America (TV-Documentary). PBS Independent Lens series. Retrieved 2009-05-15.]
  10. ^ COPS Office: Gangs
  11. ^ L.A. Gangs: Nine Miles and Spreading
  12. ^ Measuring the Extent of Gang Problems—National Youth Gang Survey Analysis
  13. ^ Into the Abyss: The Racial and Ethnic Composition of Gangs
  14. ^ Whitehouse.gov "Fact Sheet: Securing America Through Immigration Reform". 2005-11. Retrieved 2007-06-05. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
  15. ^ Rick Anderson. Seattle News "Lethally Blonde". Seattle News. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  16. ^ Jerry Seper (2005). "Gang will target Minuteman vigil on Mexico border". Washington Times. Retrieved 2007-06-05.
  17. ^ Jerry Seper. Washington Times "Al Qaeda seeks tie to local gangs". Washington Times. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  18. ^ Heather Mac Donald (2005-04-13). Manhattan Institute For Policy Research "Testimony". Retrieved 2007-06-05. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  19. ^ Klein, M.W., Kerner, H.J., Maxson, C.L. & Weitekamp, G.M. (2001)(eds) "The Eurogang Paradox":Street Gangs and Youth Groups in the U.S. and Europe', Kluwer Academic Publications, ISBN=0-7923-6844-4
  20. ^ Asbury, H. (1928) The Gangs of New York : An Informal History of the Underworld. Reprinted in original format 1989 Dorset Press; ISBN 0-88029-429-9. Republished in 2001 with a foreword by Jorge Luis Borges
  21. ^ Meranze, M. (1996), Laboratories of Virtue: Punishment, Revolution, and Authority in Philadelphia, 1760-1835, Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, ISBN 978-0-8078-2277-7
  22. ^ Hayden, T. (2004) 'Street Wars': Gangs and the Future of Violence, New York: The New Press.
  23. ^ a b Dichiara, A. And Chabot, R. (2003) 'Gangs and the Contemporary Urban Struggle: An Unappreciated Aspect of Gangs', in Gangs and Society: Alternative Perspectives. New York: Columbia University Press.
  24. ^ Levy, F. (1987) Dollars and Dreams: The Changing American Income Distribution. New York: Russell Sage.
  25. ^ Oliver, M.L., Johnson, J.H. And Ferrell, W.C. (1993) 'Anatomy of a Rebellion: A political-economic Analysis', in Reading Rodney King, Reading Urban uprising (ed.), New York: Routledge Press.
  26. ^ Wilson, William Julius. (1978). "The Declining Significance of Race: Blacks and Changing American Institutions." Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  27. ^ U.S. Dept. of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Jan. 29, 2010
  28. ^ a b Starr, K. (2004) Coast of Dreams: California on the Edge, 1990-2003. New York: Random House.
  29. ^ Warren, Susan. "Violent Times/In local gang world, violence has different meaning." Houston Chronicle. Monday January 31, 1994. A1. Retrieved on April 4, 2009.
  30. ^ "Child killing sparks action against Los Angeles gangs." The Christian Science Monitor. September 25, 1995. Volume 87, Issue 210. Page 4.
  31. ^ Pelisek, Christine. "Avenues of Death." LA Weekly. July 14, 2005.
  32. ^ "Southwest Houston After Dark," Texas Monthly, December 2006
  33. ^ "Gangs Increasing in Military, FBI Says". Military.com. 2008-06-30. Retrieved 2012-03-08.
  34. ^ Gray, DSAIFJKASfljeiofjijklMadison. "Street Crime: Too Often Blamed on Gangs, Experts Say." TIME. Wednesday September 2, 2009. Retrieved on September 2, 2009.
  35. ^ Ben Marshall, Barry Webb, Nick Tilley (2005-11). "Rationalisation of current research on guns, gangs and other weapons:Phase 1" (PDF). Jill Dando Institute of Crime Science, University College London. Retrieved 2007-06-05. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  36. ^ Shelley, Louise. questia "Journal Article Excerpt". Journal of International Affairs. 48. Retrieved 2007-06-05. {{cite journal}}: Check |url= value (help); Unknown parameter |laydate= ignored (help)
  37. ^ Moran, Robert (22 July 2010). "Latin Kings gang members charged in murder, racketeering, drug offenses". Philadelphia Enquirer. Retrieved 10 Jan 2011.
  38. ^ Valdez, A, "Gangs Across America" (2007)
  39. ^ Street Gangs — Chicago Based or Influenced, People Nation and Folk Nation, http://www.dc.state.fl.us/pub/gangs/chicago.html
  40. ^ "Brotherhood of Hate". Anti-Defamation League. Retrieved 2007-06-05.
  41. ^ a b "White supremacist gang gaining clout after forging alliance with Aryan Brotherhood". courtTVnews. 2007-03-05. Retrieved 2007-06-05.
  42. ^ Blumstein, Alfred “Youth, Guns, & Violent Crime” The Future Of Children, vol. 12 no.2(2002):39
  43. ^ a b Irving A. Spergel, "Youth Gangs: Continuity and Change", Crime & Justice vol. 12 (1990):171
  44. ^ Irving A. Spergel, "Youth Gangs: Continuity and Change", Crime & Justice vol. 12 (1990): 172
  45. ^ Johnson, Michael. "The New York Draft Riots", Reading the American Past, (2009): 295
  46. ^ Klein, Malcom “The Eurogang Paradox: Street Gangs and Youth Groups in the U.S. and Europe”social science (2000): 3
  47. ^ Irving A. Spergel, "Youth Gangs: Continuity and Change", Crime & Justice vol. 12 (1990): 174
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